Case Study
Warsaw Basic data for
greenstructure study see also
Warsaw
Greenspace Policies Working
Group 1A -
Munich case study Oct
01 Oct
02 URBAN
ECOLOGY CASE STUDIES Sheffield to
do RELATED
PAPERS Figures
and Tables at end of paper - maps to be added The greenstructure of
Warsaw The City of Warsaw has
approximately 1 610 471 inhabitants on surface area of 494,3
km2. It gives average density of 3258 p. per km2 in 2000
(Statistical Review-Warsaw 2002). If Warsaw Agglomeration
considered the population reaches 2 100 000 people. Warsaw
as a capital of Poland is the biggest city, only one with
population over one million inhabitants. It is located on
the Vistula River in the central part of Mazowian Lowland.
According to the administrative division Warsaw belongs to
the Mazowian Voivodship (voivodships correspond to
geographical and historical regions). The specific
administrative structure of Warsaw was established in 1990.
The city has been an association of eleven independent
communes since then. Each of the communes has a self
&endash; government consists of the Commune Council and
Board. Additionally, the Capital City Council has been
constituted (Niemczyk 1998). As a major legislative body it
controls spatial planning process in the whole city,
together with the City Major and the City Board. The
relationship between them and the communes regulates the
Warsaw Act, binding since 1994. This administrative division
is only one example among Polish cities and significantly
influences Warsaw planning and management. Main natural
environmental features and their role in greenstructure
development Contemporary
greenstructure of Warsaw relies on natural and historical
landscape elements. Its dependence on natural structures is
getting weaker as a result of the urbanisation processes,
but there still exist some key components, which create
visible pattern of green areas like relief, geological
basement and hydrological system. The first significant
natural landmark of Warsaw and its vicinities is the Vistula
River (Fig. 1). Northern and southern parts of the river are
quite natural and present some typical features of braided
river like sandbars (unforested as well as forested mainly
by riparian forest). Its bed is about one kilometre wide
there and narrows to 350 meters in the central district.
Both banks are accompanied by riparian forest along almost
whole, twenty-four kilometres long, riverbed within
administrative border. The Vistula River has unsymmetrical
valley consists of few terraces on west and east sides. The
west part contains mainly two terraces the lowest,
contemporary flood plain one, and former flooded, the
highest, while the east side has more complicated pattern of
oldest, unflooded terraces. Still existing system of lakes -
the Vistula old &endash; riverbed and streams (Fig. 2.) on
the youngest terraces are the main attribute of their
naturalness, and are additionally underlined by narrow
strips of riparian forest and bushes. Wastelands, pastures
and extensively used meadows cover the left parts of wide
plain terraces. Specificity of the
highest eastside terraces emphasises geological basement.
Aolian sand with number of dunes, parted by peat swamps or
small ponds create different condition for greenstructure,
which creates, in majority patches of pine or beech
forests. Divers in structure and
naturalness the Vistula Valley provides wide green open
spaces in Warsaw, even in central district. The next significant
element of Warsaw landscape is the Warsaw Escarpment, the
edge of moraine plateau. This clay form is well seen only on
westside of the Vistula River and plays an important role as
a city landmark. It is twenty to twenty five meters high in
the Old Town and central district (Fig. 3.) and getting
lower in the north and south part of Warsaw, where reaches
about ten meters (Fig. 4.). The course of the Warsaw
Escarpment is underlined by the natural and semi natural
green areas. They form rather narrow but almost continued
structure to the inner city. Its south and the north part
are connected with the large patches of open spaces, mostly
forested. Both protected because of their environmental
value create the framework of regional greenstructure. The
northern one Kampinoski National Park (one of the biggest
Polish national parks, 356.55 sq. km.) and the southern
Kabacki Forest Nature Reserve. They are the natural sources
of alimentation in two aspects biodiversity and air
regeneration (Fig.5). The Warsaw Escarpment
was discovered as a crucial natural structure for
localization of the magnificent residential palaces, parks
and gardens or other representative objects. That is why it
has gradually become a significant historical landmark
too. The major part of the
Warsaw has been located on the west sides of the moraine
plateau, where the urbanization processes caused gradually
vanishing of natural landscape, greenstructure as well. Only
few groups of tiny patches of forest, small lakes, short
parts of streams or just only valleys, remain of those
previous landscapes. Some of them are developed into parks
or recreational areas but some are still abandoned as
wastelands. The major Warsaw spatial
development directions have been established on the east
side of Warsaw since 1990s, because west part of the city,
within administrative boundaries, used almost every land
reserve. In this circumstances open spaces, green areas
included, without precisely formulated function, are the
best source of land for housing development, mostly
multi-storey ones. The history of the
Warsaw greenstructure element development Warsaw was founded at
the end of 13th century, and became a capital of Poland in
1596. Densely built up areas surrounded by walls (partially
exist) formed Warsaw at the beginning. There was no place
for greenery at all. Soon the city development was
undertaken in different direction, on west- side of the
Vistula River. The nomination on capital city was fruitful
for Warsaw development, spatial and cultural as
well. The first significant
element of historical greenstructure was established in 17th
century in the village located south of Warsaw (nowadays it
belongs to one of the Warsaw communes). The Wilanow Palace
and park was at the beginning, the king's summer residence.
The natural conditions of Vistula terraces were used in
garden composition. Simultaneously spatial and functional
connections were developed, on one hand with Warsaw, on the
other with villages and farms. All main roads from Warsaw to
Wilanow were planed and design with trees (Kicinska 1993) in
the end of the 18th century. The vicinities of this
residence were agricultural at that time, and most of them
had kept this function for years, even nowadays. The existed
forests were located along the Vistula River, Warsaw
Escarpment and in the south of Warsaw (Kabacki Forest) as it
is today. The first major groups
of concepts and projects of urban fabric development, the
greenstructure as well, were realized in 18th century, the
period known as "the golden age of city planning and
architecture (Kicinska 1993). Warsaw was transformed then
into modern European City with 110 000 inhabitants (Tab.1).
Two axes ordered urban structure, the Saska and the
Stanislawowska. The Saska Axis (one and a half kilometre in
length) continued from the Warsaw Escarpment to the west
part of the suburbs (Fig. 6a, Fig. 6b.). The crucial part of
it was created by the Saski Palace (destroyed during World
War Second) and Garden (exist nowadays). The scenic
continuity was protected for years, but later urban
development interrupted this attribute of axis. The second
achievement, the Stanislawowska Axis, was good example of
considering the most valuable natural elements in that
spatial composition. The Warsaw Escarpment, the terraces and
the Vistula River, the existing forest created frames of
that composition. The key elements of it are one of the most
valuable elements of today's greenstructure and historical
objects in Warsaw downtown. After these fruitful
time Warsaw development was limited by three partitions of
Poland for 123 years. Even then, some significant investment
of that period has unconsciously influenced contemporary
greenstructure. The system of military fortification
constructed by the Russian Tsar authorities creates nowadays
two circles of forts (some of them with moats or wooded),
roads and embankments contribute to greenstructure
development. Next 19th century
investment, Warsaw railway, provides presently key areas for
ecological system. Vast unbuilt areas from west suburbs to
the central district plays important role as a passageways,
crucial for city ventilation (western circulation
predominately performs in Warsaw). During that period of
time the Warsaw surface areas and the number of inhabitants
had rapidly changed (Tab.1 and Tab.2). That tremendous
growths caused subsequent investment of 19th century, the
water and sewerage systems built according to Lindley's
Plans. Presently they are called the first plans of
regulating ecological problems, environmental protection and
health of inhabitants (Wilski 1993). Modern greenstructure
development Rapid growth of Warsaw
population and its surface area made architects elaborate
systematic plans of Warsaw development, greenstructure
included. The first neighbourhood with carefully design
greenstructure was developed at the early 1920s, and next
the first legally binding municipal plan of Warsaw
elaborated in 1929 (Wilski 1993). The most significant
elements of the proposed greenstructure were green fingers,
indicated from downtown to suburbs. The recreation and the
proper air ventilation of Warsaw were two key reasons of
that greenstructure development. That two integrated targets
have been implemented in next elaborated plans, the latest
one as well. The World War Second
caused almost total Warsaw destruction on the west side,
greenstructure included (Fig. 7.). The first sketch of the
Warsaw Plan of 1945 proposed to develop vast green areas
along Vistula Valley and main transportation elements
(railway and roads) but its assumptions were never achieved
(Fig. 8.). The idea of greenstructure planning and
development was continued even if political system changed
and the economic situation got worse just after the
war. The concept of "the
parks of culture and leisure" was adopted to assure cultural
entertainment (cinemas, amphitheatres) and to provide
conditions for sport and recreation (stadiums, playgrounds).
The normative for greenstructure design were elaborated at
that time (Król 1995). They regulated on one hand
surface area of greenery per person on the other the pattern
of green open spaces. As an effect of those established
conditions, number of parks, squares and promenades were
developed during the first two decades after World War
Second. The idea of green fingers of 1930s was continued
then. This domination of recreational aspect in
greenstructure had lasted until 1970s when second crucial
aim appeared, ecological. It coincided with the world-wide
awareness of environmental protection. Indicating and
protecting natural systems, have become a real challenge for
ecologist and landscape planners in Poland, Warsaw included.
The Urban Natural System (UNS) concepts known also as the
Urban Ecological System (other terms were also used) has
been promoted since then (Stala 1986, 1990, Biernacki 1990,
Szulczewska Kaftan 1996). Their assumptions were developed
as a consequence of implementing ecosystem theory into
planning process. They stressed not only importance of
preservation and conservation of the most valuable landscape
structure elements but they recognised creation of
ecological systems through the urban areas as a key task.
The identification is crucial for ensuring proper living
condition of city dwellers, through making place for nature
performance. Taking into account the assumptions of the UNS
concept in the major Warsaw planning documents should be
considered as an important achievement. The present
greenstructure of Warsaw together with other open spaces,
like open water or agricultural land, cover significant part
of whole urban area, more then 50 percentages (Tab.3). The
residential areas occupy 27 percentages but its rate is
still growing. The most vulnerable lands to build them up
are agricultural ones. Their rapid vanishing has continued
for last 12 years, and has been caused by fast urbanisation
process. Green open spaces cover 36,3 percentages of total
Warsaw area, according to inventory made in 1997 and updated
in 2001 (Tab.4.). There dominate three categories of
greenery. Forests, municipal and national, cover about
fourteen percentages of Warsaw surface area, parks municipal
as well as owned by communes, occupy six percentages of the
city and similar size has other greenspace without precisely
formulated functions. The ecological and
environmental functions of Warsaw's
greenstructure The crucial ecological
and environmental performance of greenstructure in urban
area is out of question. It directly and positively
influence air quality, climate and microclimate condition,
water circulation, matter and nutrients flow, quality of the
other abiotic components like soil, surface and ground
water, relief features (microforms) among others. Very
detailed information about the strength of those influences
required precise and constant research. In Warsaw, the
number of different studies have been conducted for years,
but since the acceptation of the ecological theory into
understanding urban nature performance they have been
organized in more complex ways. There was huge program
conducted by number of environmental specialist at the first
half of 1990s and sponsored by government. Almost every
component was examine to find out its specificity in urban
ecosystems, to investigate its role in creating condition of
urban nature and to recognise its capacity in purification
of contaminated water, air and soil. Those studies were
organized simultaneously, what gave a possibility to point
out some relationship and dependence between components,
processes and phenomenon (Tab.5). They had strong practical
orientation mostly for ecological system protection and
conservation, but also some attempts were done to use them
in planing and design of residential areas. The plan of a
new commune in Warsaw agglomeration was elaborated at the
beginning of 1990s. The results of the physiographic studies
were fundamental for land use development, even for building
structure design. Unfortunately, it has never been built.
That research began more advanced studies of the urban
nature, but because of lack of money only some of them have
been conducted or only some features monitored. The information base on
greenstructure ecology The Warsaw environment,
abiotic as well as biotic, has been an object of the surveys
for years. Firstly, they were done separately and did not
cover whole Warsaw surface area, only some spread points of
interest. Simultaneously to the urban ecology development
some complex approach has been worked out. The first comprehensive
mapping of the real vegetation communities of Warsaw were
done at the beginning of 1980s and next updated in 1998
(Koz_owska 1999). It was the first Polish attempt to mapping
of the contemporary real vegetation of the big cities at a
large-scale 1:20000. The second aim of that survey was to
examine spatial structure of vegetation within the city
(Chojnacki 1991). It has become one of the basic documents
of Warsaw development as well as source of the key
information for nature conservation and protection.
According to them about twenty-five percentages of total
Warsaw area is covered by natural and seminatural
vegetation, which is highly phytosociologically diversified.
Sixty percentages of the total number of identified
associations occurred in that type of vegetation (Chojnacki
1991). Forests and brushwood
dominate spatially, they cover more then twenty-four
percentages. Examining the naturalness of them, there are
only few patches of the remnants of natural forest (from
pre-urbanization period) and most of them are communities
resituated within the first half of 20th century. Those both
groups create the framework of the Warsaw natural
system. Synanthropic vegetation
accurse at seventy-five percentages of Warsaw surface area
and among them therophyte communities are dominants
(Chojnacki 1991). This detailed database
gives vast possibilities of analysis needed for proper city
nature management like, degree of heterogeneity, direction
of communities changes because of habitats eutrophication
(nitrophilous or calciophilous), xerotrophication and still
growing inflow of the alien species. It enables to control
the sequence of vegetation communities, from inner city,
where they relate mostly on land use type to Warsaw suburbs
where still natural condition determined the vegetation
pattern. The result of that survey has pointed out some
problems. They should be studied in more detailed way and
more frequently like the dynamic of the communities, the
succession of vegetation and more precise phytosociology of
some vegetation type, especially forests and subspontaneous
communities within urban greenery (Chojnacki
1991). Despite the mapping of
real vegetation the other program, relating to Warsaw green
space was invented by the Bureau of the Warsaw City Board in
1996. The Program of Protection and Development of Green
Area was elaborated to identify, evaluate and valorise each
green space (Lisicki 1996). The first stage of it, the
greenstructure inventory for whole Warsaw has been done
since then. The constructed database (GIS) provides detailed
information about each greenstructure element and become a
basis of its protection, conservation, development and
management. Simultaneously to Warsaw
vegetation surveys the research of zoocenosis have become a
point of interest. The history of fauna investigation within
Warsaw area and its vicinities reaches back to the end of
19th century when the survey of mammals was done (Luniak
1990). Last thirty years have presented the most intensive
and detailed research on this topic. The best information
has been gathered for avifauna and mammals. In Warsaw, there
are 207 species of birds (breeding birds, wintering birds
are included) and forty-one species of mammals (only
twenty-two ever-living, nine rarely occurring). Very
detailed research has been done to examine the relationship
between biotops and existing species. As a result their
refuges have been identified, for Central Commune area and
the other valuable landscape like Warsaw
Escarpment. The System of Constant
Diagnosis of the Warsaw Natural Environment invented in 1993
is, on one hand an idea of gathering detailed and
comprehensive information about components and processes of
the Warsaw environment, but on the other is a proposal for
its monitoring (Matuszkiewicz 2000). The assumptions of that
program have been tested for one patch of forest until
now. Greenstructure planning
and protection Warsaw greenstructure
planning, take place within the procedures of spatial
planning. However, Warsaw as the association of eleven
communes works according to its own rules. Each commune has
in duty to work out planning documents independently. These
are Strategies and Programs of development, Studies of
Conditions and Development Directions and Local Plans, only
one legally binding document (Fig.9). The role of the Warsaw
City Hall is to control and co-ordinate development of the
key city structures, greenstructure among others. The main
instrument to achieve this goal is the Capital City of
Warsaw Development Plan containing the Obligatory Guidelines
for the Warsaw Boroughs. Each Local Spatial Developments
Plans ought to consider those guidelines in elaborating
process (Uchwa_a Nr XXXVIII/492/2001 and Krajobraz
Warszawski on the New Spatial Policy). The latest version of
the Plan, accepted in 2001 regulates pattern and function of
greenstructure for the whole city by written appropriate
guidelines for the urban natural system and green open
spaces among others. Three key zones have
been indicated in the plan as a result of considering the
urban natural system concept. These are Ecological Zone,
Ecological Zone- Auxiliary System and Air Ventilation and
Regeneration System (Fig.10). The Ecological Zone has
been divided into four categories, protected areas,
recreational, recreational and residential, and others. Each
of them has their own provisions formulated, according to
particular environmental value, ecological, historical and
social. The provisions are written as prohibitions or
recommendations. The first of them relates to this kind of
development, which can cause deterioration of environmental
values, while the second one formulates the best proposal
for the ecological zone development with minimum impact of
the environment. The main role of the
Ecological Zone &endash;Auxiliary System is to keep
connectivity between spread green areas or to be a buffer
zone of the most natural landscapes. Thus, to achieve these
aims the provisions indicate green belts with minimum
wideness established (along streams, creeks and roads).
Next, percentages of the greenery at each investment unit,
located in this zone, are set up to minimize negative
influence onto the valuable remnants of the natural
landscape. The third zone, the Air
Exchange and Regeneration System is to protect areas, which
create proper climatic condition in Warsaw. It partially
covers the ecological zones, mentioned above (forests and
parks), while wide wasteland, railroads and highways create
major ventilation passageways. The obligatory guidelines
formulated as the prohibitions relate to two aspects,
building any part of this zone up and location of any kind
of the pollutant emitter there. These indicated
ecological zones base on key Warsaw landscape structures.
The Vistula Valley with remnants of natural hydrological
system creates specific axis of the system. The Warsaw
Escarpment and open spaces, kept thanks to the first
concepts of 'green fingers' provide still seen linear
structure, important for ecological as well as ventilation
systems. The remnants of natural forest located mostly on
the Warsaw edges, south, north and east connect system with
major regional open spaces. Besides the provisions
written for each ecological zone, plan separately formulates
groups of prohibitions and recommendations for particular
structural elements of Warsaw landscape. These are green
open spaces, Warsaw Escarpment, sport and recreational
system, and additionally flood zone (Uchwa_a Nr
XXXVIII/492/2001). The first groups of provisions relates to
carefully indicated 108 objects - parks, gardens and
valuable waste areas (mostly natural lakes and their
vicinities) and 27 allotment gardens with recommendation for
changing their function into public green open spaces. These
objects are protected against any kind of inappropriate
investment and changing their size and status. The Warsaw Escarpment
considered as one of the most valuable elements of natural
and cultural landscape has their own specific provisions.
They equally regulate a protection of natural geomorphologic
form and processes, natural or seminatural vegetation,
historical objects and landscape pattern, and aesthetic
values. Some additional
provisions, which refer to ecological function of
greenstracture are written for the flood zone. They strictly
control its land use pattern. Thanks to them the natural
riparian forest and bushes are protected as well as sandbars
and other form created by the Vistula River
processes. Despite the Capital City
of Warsaw Development Plan the other documents, related
directly to greenstructure development are elaborated by the
City Hall. The latest one is the Strategic Program of Warsaw
Green Open Space Development. The short and long term aims
have been formulated to achieve proper greenstructure
protection and development. Separate rules of
development and management are written for legally protected
areas, Nature Reserves (eleven indicated until now),
historic parks and gardens, flood plain areas within flood
embankments. Each of them has appropriate legally binding
acts, which are basis for elaborating the protection plan.
The Nature Protection Act of 1991refers to nature reserves,
the Culture Heritage Protection Act for historic parks and
gardens and Water Law Act of 2001 for the Vistula flood
plain areas within flood embankments. Some conclusions: How
have ecological goals been set out to influence the
planning, design and management processes? Is there any
evidence, that these goals have effectively influenced the
planning processes within the study area? The fact of delineation
of the urban natural system in the Capital City of Warsaw
Development Plan should be considered as achievement and
opportunity. The provisions elaborated for these areas give
guidelines for their development or even for protection
against any changes of their function. However, the same
plan generates the threats in the light of greenstructure
planning. Green areas, missed in the plan, because of too
general scale or inappropriate methods of the system
identification can be lost. Each commune takes
cognisance of planning and management of that 'lost' by
plan, green open spaces, what results often in changing
their function into housing or residential zones. The plan elaborates only
general rules of the city greenstructure development. It is
up to planners and the communes' authorities how the rules
will be applied into detailed land use plans, worked out for
particular part of the urban natural system. Open
interpretation of the provisions, written as prohibitions or
recommendation, bears unexpected fruits, mostly negative.
Sometimes green roofs are considered green space where
provisions dedicate a certain minimum percentage for such
areas. As an effect, instead of greenery associated with
residential areas, densely built up blocks appeared with
green roofs. References Biernacki Z. (1990)
Koncepcja kszta_towania trzonu przyrodniczego oraz os_ony
ekologicznej miasta w modyfikowanych planach
zagospodarowania przestrzennego. W: Problemy ochrony i
kszta_towania _rodowiska przyrodniczego na obszarach
zurbanizowanych. Cz. II. Wydaw. SGGW-AR, Warszawa, (in
Polish). Biuro Zarz_du Miasta
Sto_ecznego Warszawy (2002) Cele strategiczne w zakresie
ochrony _rodowiska dla miasta Warszawy. Warszawa, (in
Polish). Chojnacki J. (1991)
Zró_nicowanie przestrzenne ro_linno_ci Warszawy.
Wydawnictwa UW, Warszawa, (summary in English ) Kici_ska E. (2000)
Ziele_ Warszawy w opracowaniach pracowni zieleni BOS, BUW,
PUW, BPRW 1945-1991 r. Gmina Warszawa-Centrum, Warszawa, (in
Polish). Kicinska E. (1993)
Cultural landscape of Warsaw Escarpment &endash; Dominant
Macro Spatial Complexes, Research Documents and Conclusions,
Landscapes No12, The Board for the Preservation of Historic
Gardens and Palaces. Koz_owska A. (1999)
Ro_linno__ rzeczywista Warszawy, niepublikowane materia_y
Biura Zarz_du m.st. Warszawy, Warszawa. Krajobraz Warszawski on
the New Spatial Policy (2001) Urban Planning &endash;
Architectural Magazine, The Department of Spatial and
Architectural of Warsaw City Hall, No.52a,
Warsaw. Król B. (1995)
Powi_zania zieleni miejskiej z obszarami pozamiejskimi w
rozwoju historycznym na przyk_adzie planów rozwoju
Warszawy, ze szczególnym uwzgl_dnieniem
problemów wypoczynku i warunków regulacji
_rodowiska. Paper presented at konferencji pt. Ekologiczny
system miejskich terenów zieleni i krajobrazu.
_ód_, (in Polish). Lisicki P. (1996)
Program Ochrony i Rozwoju Terenów Zieleni w
Warszawie, Biuro Zarz_du m.st. Warszawy, Wydzia_
Zagospodarowania Przestrzennego, Warszawa (in
Polish). Luniak M. (1990)
Wystepowanie ssakow w Warszawie, [w] Funkcjonowanie
ukladow ekologicznych w warunkach zurbanizowanych, nr 58,
230-243, SGGW-AR, Warszawa. Luniak M. (1990)
Awifauna miasta &endash; jej sklad, zroznicowanie oraz
udzial w procesach ekologicznych, [w] Funkcjonowanie
ukladow ekologicznych w warunkach zurbanizowanych, nr 58,
209-229, SGGW-AR, Warszawa. Matuszkiewicz A.J.
(2000) The System of Constant Diagnosis of Warsaw's Natural
Environment, Man and Environment, Vol.24 No.1, 71-78pp.
(Abstract in English). Molski P., at al. (1990)
Warsaw, The Environment and the City [in] 'Miasto'
special issue of the International Society of City and
Regional Planners, Warsaw. Niemczyk M. (1998) City
Profile &endash; Warsaw, City vol. 15 No.4, pp. 301-311,
Elsevier Science Ltd. Stala Z. (1986)
Przyrodniczy model struktury przestrzennej miasta. Cz_owiek
i _rodowisko 10, 4, (in Polish). Stala Z. (1990)
Ekofizjograficzne zasady kszta_towania struktury
przestrzennej miast w planach zagospodarowania
przestrzennego. IGPiK, Warszawa, (in Polish). Statistic Office in
Warsaw (2002) Panorama of Gminas of Warsaw 2000 Year,
Series: Information and Statistic Papers Year V,
Warsaw. Statistical
Review-Warsaw (2002) Information and Statistical Papers,
Year XI No 1/2002, Warsaw. Szulczewska B., Kaftan
J. (1996) Kszta_towanie Systemu Przyrodniczego Miasta.
IGPiK, Warszawa, (in
Polish). Wilski J. (1993) Warsaw
Physical Development, Warsaw Capital City Office. Working
Group 1A -
Warsaw case study 30 Oct
01 DRAFT
PAPERS Sheffield - to
be added RELATED
PAPERS List of
figures Fig. 1. Warsaw &endash;
geomorphology Fig. 2. Wilanowka
River Fig. 3. Old Town
Escarpment Fig. 4. Green
Escarpment Fig.5. Warsaw &endash;
regional context Fig. 6a. Saska
Axis Fig. 6b. Saska
Axis Fig. 7. Warsaw 1945
&endash; destruction Fig. 8. Warsaw 1945
&endash; plan Fig.9. Planning system
of the Capital City of Warsaw Fig.10. Warsaw
Ecological Zone List of
Tables Tab.1. Changes of the
Warsaw population Tab.2. Changes of the
Warsaw surface areas Tab.3. The land use type
of Warsaw Tab.4. Type of
greenstructure of Warsaw Tab.5. The main
objects and goals of urban nature studies
© Ewa,
Kaliszuk
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