Safety in Parks Bibliography
Prepared by CPTED unit - Washington State University
http://www.wsu.edu
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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography aspires to share with experienced and
inexperienced readers alike a cross-section of the body of
research that is generally refereed to as Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED). While a substantial portion of the
available literature has been amassed, this bibliography is not
exhaustive. Instead, it is focused upon research and publications
that pertain to crime in open spaces.
The bibliography consists of relevant examples from CPTED as well
as related areas. For example, the effects of crime on park
patrons is an important issue, but the lack of research in this
area requires that general public responses to crime be examined.
The result is a compilation of literature that has direct
applications to most every built environment.
If you locate works that would be worthwhile additions to this
compilation please forward them to: o2design@wsu.edu, either
through an attachment or in the body of an email message.
NOTE: All works have been entered according to the Publication
Manual of the APA (4th ed.), sans underlining. Works in Bold
include annotations.
A
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Abrams, G., Ataov, A., Courson, W., Imeokparia, T., Melsheimer,
W., Nasar, J. L., & Nix, R. (1993). A community safety guide for
the City of Columbus. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University,
City & Regional Planning 851, Precinct Planning.
This guide was developed within a university course as a product
for the community. The manual addresses ways by which the
planning, design and maintenance of the environment may aid in
reducing crime. It details the following six approaches: 1)
increase personal guardianship, 2) increase natural surveillance,
3) increase visual control, 4) impede the criminal's approach and
escape, 5) increase territoriality, and 6) increase sense of
community. The net product is a good introduction to practical
measures which cities or communities may take to deter criminals
(text is supported with copious photographs, sketches and site
plans).
Ahlberg, J., & Knutsson, J. (1990). The risk of detection. Journal
of Quantitative Criminology, 6, 117-130.
This work examines means by which the likelihood of an offender
being detected may be calculated. However, the formulas presented
are not meant to be applied at the individual or situational
level, rather they are for estimating figures for the populous of
offenders. The authors discuss "the dark figure" (i.e., the number
of "crimes not detected and crimes not reported") and "the
clearance rate" (i.e., "the percentage of the crimes reported
whichare considered cleared" by police). The authors also point
out that detection at the situational level is composed of "total
risk of detection" and the "primary risk of detection". The
primary risk refers to being caught in the act, versus all
possible means of being detected (e.g., post facto). Surprisingly,
the authors do not believe that offenders have much control over
getting "caught red-handed", saying that "to get caught in the act
is a random occurrence."
Ahlstrom, R. V. N., Adair, M., Euler, R. T., & Euler, R. C.
(1992). Pothunting in Central Arizona: The Perry Mesa
archeological site vandalism study (Cultural Resources Report No.
13). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Alfano, S. S., & Magill, A. W. (Eds.). (1976). Vandalism and
outdoor recreation: Symposium proceedings. Berkeley, CA: USDA
Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station.
American Institute of Research. (1980). The link between crime and
the built environment: Vol. 1- The current state of knowledge.
Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, LEAA, U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Amir, M. (1971). Patterns in forcible rape. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago.
Andropogon Associates. (1989). Landscape management and
restoration program for the woodlands of Central Park. Report for
Central Park Administration, New York City.
Angel, S. (1968). Discouraging crime through city planning (paper
No. 75). Berkeley, CA: Center for Planning and Development
Research, University of California at Berkeley.
In this early work the author alludes to the infancy stage in
which the field of CPTED then lay, concluding the paper by saying,
"We have examined some possibilities for environmental crime
prevention through (urban planning). We have tried at this stage
to work out a theoretical structure in which this type of crime
prevention can be made possible. There has been at this point no
serious attempt to face the difficulties of implementation of
these proposals.....I have taken the position of advocate planner
in suggesting possible modifications....to meet particular needs
for safety." The paper is brief (37 pg.) but includes sketches to
illustrate proposed layouts.
Archea, J. C. (1985). The use of architectural props in the
conduct of criminal acts. Journal of Architectural and Planning
Research, 2, 245-259.
Archea, J. C., & Patterson, A. (1985). Crime and the environment:
New perspectives. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research,
2, 227-229.
Ash, M. (1975). Architecture, planning and urban crime.
Proceedings of the National Association for the Care and
Resettlement of Offenders Conference. London, England, UK: NACRO.
Athena, Research Corporation. (1981). Robber interview report.
Presented to the Crime Committee of the Southland Corporation,
June 9, 1991. Dallas, TX.
Atkins, S., Husain, S., & Storey, A. (1991). The influence of
street lighting on crime and fear of crime (Paper 28). London:
Home Office, Crime Prevention Unit.
Responding to the lack of hard data on street lighting's impact on
crime, this work sought to fill the gap by studying a London
borough undergoing relighting, partly to reduce crime. Working
from an immense data set the study found "No evidence...to support
the hypothesis that improved street lighting reduces reported
crime....[a]lthough some areas and some crime types did show
reductions in night-time crime relative to daylight control."
Additionally, it found "[t]he perceived safety of women walking
alone after dark in the re-lit area was improved, but few other
effects were statistically significant."
Atlas, R., & LeBlanc, W. G. (1994). Environmental barriers to
crime. Ergonomics in Design, 9-16.
Ayoob, M. F. (1992). The truth about self-protection. New York:
Bantam Doubleday.
B
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Babs, Y., & Austin, M. (1989). Neighborhood environmental
satisfaction, victimization, and social participation as
determinants of perceived safety. Environment and Behavior, 21,
763-780.
Bacaioa, M., Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (submitted). Trees,
sense of safety, and preference for outdoor spaces in urban public
housing. Submitted to Environment and Behavior.
"One hundred residents of Chicago's Robert Taylor Homes rated
computer simulations of different landscape treatments of an
outdoor space in terms of preference and safety. The simulations
of the space varied in the number of trees, tree arrangement,
subspaces created by the trees, and level of landscape
maintenance. Results indicate that-contrary to views of the
police-outdoor residential spaces with more trees are seen as
significantly more attractive, more safe, and more likely to be
used than similar spaces without trees. Implications for design
and policy are discussed."
Baldwin, J., & Bottoms, A. (1976). The urban criminals: A study in
Sheffield. London: Tavistock Institute of Human Relations.
Barr, R., & Pease, K. (1990). Crime placement, displacement and
deflection. In M. Tonry and N. Norris (Eds.), Crime and justice: A
review of research, 12. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Barr, R., & Pease, K. (1992). A place for every crime and every
crime in its place: An alternative perspective on crime
displacement. In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe and D. T. Herbert (Eds.),
Crime, policing and place: Essays in environmental criminology
(pp. 196-216). New York: Routledge.
Baumer, T. L. (1978). Research on fear of crime in the United
States. Victimology, 3: 254-264.
Baumer, T. L. (1985). Testing a general model for fear of crime:
Data from a national sample. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 22, 239-255.
Beavon, D. (1984). Crime and the environmental opportunity
structure: The influence of street networks on the patterning of
property offenses. Unpublished masters' thesis, British Columbia:
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
Bechtel, R. B. (1978). Undermanning theory and crime. Crime
Prevention Through Environmental Design Theory Compendium.
Arlington, VA: Westinghouse National Issues Center.
Belan, J. (1991, July). Safety and security in High Park, Toronto.
Landscape Architectural Review, 19-21.
Bell, J., & Burke, B. (1992). Cruising Cooper Street. In R. V.
Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime prevention: Successful case
studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Bell, M. M., & Bell, M. M. (1987). Crime control: Deterrence and
target hardening. In E. H. Johnson (Ed.), Handbook on crime and
delinquency prevention (pp. 45-68). NY: Greenwood Press.
Bengtsson, A. (1970). Environmental planning for children's play.
New York: Praeger.
Bennett, D. (1996). The geometry of an inner city park. Landscape
Architect & Specifier News, 12, 32-36.
Bennett, J. W. (1969). Vandals wild. Portland, OR: Bennett
Publishing,
"The purpose of Vandals Wild is to help create better
understanding of the outdoors, to create concern about the
worsening behavior problems,to show what is happening in our
forests, waters and beaches (p. iii)." The authors is, as the
work's title implies, talking about the impacts of vandalism. He
goes on to discuss how it "kills" even inanimate objects in parks,
discussing costs, causes, types and actions in the process.
Bennett, T. (1989).Burglars' choice of targets. In D. Evans & D.
Herbert (Eds.), The geography of crime. New York: Routledge.
In this chapter the author explains the "situational approach" to
studies of offending determinants, reviewing research methods and
sampling techniques (including video-tape and interview method).
The study discussed dealt with the concept of "risk, reward, and
ease of entry" as perceived by burglars. The study found that
decision to offend or not to offend was more influenced by risk
(of being caught) cues than by reward or ease of entry cues. These
findings are supported by a great deal of accumulated research.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1983a). Constraints and inducements to
crime: The property offender's perspective. Cambridge, England:
University of Cambridge, Institute of Criminology.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1983b). Offenders' perception of
targets, Home Office Research Bulletin, 15, 18-20. London:
H.M.S.O.
This paper briefly discusses methods and findings in using past
offenders as subjects in studying situational crime prevention. It
is one of the first such attempts, and the authors are well known
now for their ongoing use of so-called "direct methods of
investigation." Included are reviews of both photograph and
videotape methods.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1984a). Constraints to burglary: The
offender's perspective. In R. Clarke & T. Hope (Eds.), Coping with
burglary. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1984b). Burglars on burglary:
Prevention and the offender. Aldershot, England: Gower.
Bevis, C., & Nutter, J. B. (1977). Changing street layouts to
reduce residential burglary. Atlanta: Paper presented at the
American Society of Criminology Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA.
Awarded the 1st Prize at the Society's '77 Student Competition,
this study found that dead end, cul-de-sac and L-type blocks
experienced lower rates of crime than did through streets or
t-type blocks (also submitted to Governor's Commission of Crime
Prevention and Control, St. Paul, MN).
Beyleveld, D. (1979). Identifying, explaining and predicting
deterrence. British Journal of Criminology, 19, 205-224.
Beyleveld, D. (1980). A bibliography on general deterrence
research. Farnborough, UK: Saxon House.
Blazicek, D. (1985). Patterns of victim selection among robbers: A
theoretical and descriptive analysis. Paper presented at the Fifth
International Symposium on Victimology, Zagreg, Yugoslavia.
Block, R. (1977a). Community, environment, and violent crime.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Panel. Atlanta, GA:
American Society of Criminology.
Block, R. (1977b). Violent crime, environment, interaction and
death. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
Block, C. R. (1994). STAC hot spot areas: A statistical tool for
law enforcement decisions. D. Zahm & P. Cromwell (Eds.),
Proceedings of the International Seminar on Environmental
Criminology and Crime Analysis (pp. 61-75). Coral Gables, FL:
Florida Statistical Analysis Center, Florida Criminal Justice
Executive Institute.
Boggs, S. (1966). Urban crime patterns. American Sociological
Review, 30, 899-908.
Boggs, S. (1971). Formal and informal crime control. Sociological
Quarterly, 12, 319-327.
Bolden, C. M., & Sharitz, C. J. (1983). Security. In Dimensions of
parking, pp. 105-108. Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute and
National Parking Association.
Booth, A. (1981). The built environment as a crime deterrent: A
reexamination of defensible space. Criminology, 18, 557-570.
Bottom, N. (1988). The parking lot and garage security handbook.
Columbia, MD: Hanrow Press.
Bottoms, A. E., & Wiles, P. (1992). Explanations of crime and
place. In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe and D. T. Herbert (Eds.), Crime,
policing and place: Essays in environmental criminology (pp.
11-35). New York: Routledge.
Bouza, A. V. (1995, September). Trees and crime prevention.
Proceedings of the Seventh National Urban Forest Conference (pp.
31-32). New York, NY: American Forests.
The author reflects on his years in the New York City Police
Department, and his efforts to incorporate trees into the streets
of Harlem and the Bronx, as well as other efforts of early
"community policing" such as transforming empty lots into
community gardens, cleaning trash from the Bronx River, as well as
other projects. The most interesting aspect of this brief
retrospective is how thoroughly the author's personal love of
forests affected his service to the people within his watch.
Box, S., Hale, C., & Andrews, G. (1988). Explaining fear of crime.
British Journal of Criminology, 28, 340-356.
Brantingham, P., & Brantingham, P. (1975b). The spatial patterning
of burglary. Howard Journal, 14, 11-23.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1977). Housing patterns
and burglary in a medium-sized American city. In J. Scott & S.
Dinitz (Eds.), Criminal justice planning (pp. 63-74). New York:
Praeger.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1978). A theoretical
model of crime site selection. In M. D. Kohn & R. L. Aders (Eds.),
Crime, law and sanctions: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 105-118).
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (Eds.). (1981a).
Environmental criminology. Beverly Hills: Sage.
According to the authors, a crime takes place when all of the
essential elements are present. These elements consist of: a law,
an offender, a target, and a place. They characterize these as
"the four dimensions of crime", with Environmental criminology
studying the last of the four dimensions. This important book
chronicles the subject from its inceptions through the '80s.,
discussing research, major areas of study . Chapters are written
by such authors as Brown & Altman, Wood, Mayhew and Mawby.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1981b). Notes on the
geometry of crime. In P.J. Brantingham & P.L. Brantingham (Eds.),
Environmental criminology (pp. 27-54). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1984a). Burglar mobility
and crime prevention planning. In R. Clarke & T. Hope (Eds.),
Coping with burglary (pp. 77-95). Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1984b). Patterns in
crime. New York: Macmillan.
Brantingham, P. L. (1989). Crime prevention: The North American
experience. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of
crime. New York: Routledge.
In this thorough and insightful chapter the author chronicles the
conception, conceptual models of, and changes to crime prevention
on this continent. In calling for further theoretical and applied
research, she concludes that of the two levels at which prevention
is proceeding-standardized programmes versus those specific to a
socio-geographic environment-"...standardized programming is
unlikely to work..." thus more investigation is needed in the
latter area.
Brantingham, P. L., & Brantingham, P. J. (1975a). Residential
burglary and urban form. Urban Studies, 12, 273-284.
Brantingham, P. L., & Brantingham, P. J. (1993). Nodes, paths, and
edges: Considerations on the complexity of crime and the physical
environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 53-28.
This paper is extremely useful for the reader wishing an
understanding of the past two decades of research on the
relationship between crime and the physical environment. Over 200
works are cited in the process of discussing the field's progress
and status. The authors utilize a theoretical framework to
describe the range of studies conducted on the subject. This
includes: 1) the complex etiology of crime; 2) the crime patterns
of individuals, with particular attention to how the physical
environment influences their behavior; 3) aggregate crime
patterns, with particular attention to how the physical
environment influences them. Also introduced are the concepts of
nodes, paths, edges and an 'environmental backcloth'. The authors
close with a discussion of general directions research should take
from this point. They note the uniquely well developed
understanding of burglary and suggest that research in other areas
is needed to bring them up to similar levels. In particular they
bring up the need for investigation of cognitive mappings pointing
out that "the cognitive physical and spatial environment does not
exist independently of the cognitive, social, cultural, economic,
legal and temporal environment."
Brantingham, P. J., Brantingham, P. L., & Butcher, D. (1986).
Perceived and actual crime risks. In P. Figlio, S. Hakim & G.
Rengert (Eds.), Metropolitan crime patterns (139-160). New York:
Criminal Justice Press.
Brantingham, P. J., Brantingham, P. L., & Molumby, T. (1977).
Perceptions of crime in a dreadful enclosure. Ohio Journal of
Science, 77, 256-261.
Brantingham, P. J., Dyreson, D. A., & Brantingham, P. L. (1976).
Crime seen through a cone of resolution. American Behavioral
Scientist, 20, 261-273.
Brantingham, P. J., & Faust, F. L. (1976). A conceptual model of
crime prevention. Crime and Delinquency, 22, 284-296.
Brill, W. H. (1972). Security in public housing: A synergistic
approach. In Deterrence of Crime in and Around Residences: Papers
presented at the Fourth National Symposium on Law Enforcement
Science and Technology. College Park, MD: University of Maryland.
Brill & Associates. (1976). Victimization, fear of crime, and
altered behavior: A profile of the crime problems in William
Nickerson Jr. Gardens, Los Angeles, CA. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development.
This report is one of a series on 'Victimization, Fear of Crime,
and Altered Behavior' in public housing projects. The reports aim
at gathering statistical information to be used for comprehensive
security plans at the projects. One section deals with building
design and location of crimes committed.*
Brooks, J. (1974). The fear of crime in the United States. Crime
and Delinquency, 20, 241-244.
Brower, S. (1980). Territory in urban settings. In I. Altman et
al. (Eds.), Human Behavior in the Environment: Advances in Theory
and Research, Vol. 4. New York: Plenum.
Brower, S., Dockett, K., & Taylor, R. (1983). Residents'
perceptions of territorial features and perceived local threat.
Environment and Behavior, 15, 419-437.
Responses to varying images of defensible space features and
territorial signs were measured utilizing line drawings with
variations in key features. "Results supported the following
hypotheses: (1) that the presence of real barriers and plantings
are interpreted as a deterrent to intrusion and an indication of
stronger occupant territorial attitudes, and (2) that as local
perceived threat increases, territorial displays are viewed as
less effective deterrents to intrusion.
Brown, B. B. (1983). Territoriality, street form, and residential
burglary: Social and environmental analyses (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Utah, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 44, 357B.
Brown, B. B. (1985). Residential territories: Cues to burglary
vulnerability. Journal of Architecture and Planning Research, 2,
231-243.
This paper uses "Newman's work on defensible space and Altman's
work on territoriality to formulate a hypothesis that certain
design elements enhance or reflect residential territoriality and
thereby influence burglar's target selections. Specifically,
evidence on the links from real and symbolic barriers, traces, and
detectability features to burglary vulnerability and residential
territoriality are reviewed." The review of relevant literature is
effective and useful.
Brown, B. B. (1987). Territoriality. In D. Stokols & I. Altman
(Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology, 3 (pp. 505-531).
Brown, B. B., & Altman, I. (1981a). Territoriality and residential
crime: A conceptual framework. In P. Brantingham & P. Brantingham
(Eds.), Environmental criminology (pp. 55-76). Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage Publications.
Brown, B. B., & Altman, I. (1983). Territoriality, defensible
space and residential burglary: An environmental analysis. Journal
of Environmental Psychology, 3, 203-220.
With this study the focus of burglary prevention was heading
towards use of cues. It was developing territoriality theories to
great detail. The weaknesses the authors experienced, however,
appear to have led to studies employing burglars. In that way
researchers were able to overcome much of the guesswork which was
otherwise necessary to determine decision making by criminals.
Brown, B. B., & Bentley, D. L. (1993). Residential burglars judge
risk: The role of territoriality. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 13, 51-61.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1988a). Criminal victimization in
the United States, 1986. National Crime Survey Report. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1988b). Criminal victimization,
1987. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1992). Criminal victimization in
the United States, 1992. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice.
Burgess, J. (in progress). Perceptions of risk in recreational
woodlands in the urban fringe. London, UK: Countryside Commission.
The extensive work examines recreation users' perceptions of risk
in "well-wooded landscapes on the fringes of towns and cities" in
the United Kingdom. It evolved out of an effort to increase and
broaden the patronage of these settings. As a potential deterrent
to usage, perceptions of risk were examined from a number of
perspectives, including: kinds of perceived risks, extent to which
perceptions of risk inhibit use, and strategies recommended for
reducing perceptions of risk. Also included is a thorough review
of existing literature. Qualitative methods (participant
observation and focus groups) were employed in an attempt to
improve on the shortcomings of other methods, especially rating of
photographs. Data collection was completed between January and May
of 1993, at two urban fringe sites. Noteworthy findings include
those concerning "enclosure", "entrapment", and isolation.
Addressed are specific impacts of these factors on patrons'
perceptions of risk and their use of woodlands. Gender differences
are addressed, as are recommendations relevant to environmental
designers and resource managers.
Burgess, J., Harrison, C. M., & Limb, M. (1988). People, parks and
the urban green: A study of popular meanings and values for open
spaces in the city. Urban Studies, 25, 455-473.
Bynum, T. S, & Purri, D. M. (1984). Crime and architectural style:
An examination of the environmental design hypothesis. Criminal
Justice and Behavior, 11, 179-196.
Historically, social scientists have argued that human behavior
is, to a large degree, a response to environmental conditions.
Recently, a group of criminologists posited a direct relationship
between certain environmental structures and reported crime rates.
Studies exploring this area have pointed to the association
between crime rates and high rise residences as support for their
position....Using victimization techniques, the experiences of
residents of several high and low rise structures in a
traditionally low crime area such as the college campus were
investigated.....Although causality can not be inferred from the
findings, a positive association was observed between high rise
areas and property crime rates.*
C
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Campbell, F., Hendee, J., & Clarke, R. (1979). Law and order in
public parks. Park and Recreation, 6, 35-36.
Canter, D., & Larkin, P. (1993). The environmental range of serial
rapists. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 63-69.
This article at first seems more appropriate for aiding in the
solving of crimes, however the application to deterrence is
apparent. The authors, after studying 45 sexual offenders' spatial
activity, found support for the 'domocentricity' theory, as well
as the Marauder and Circle-and-Range hypotheses, while the
Commuter model found no support. This suggests that offenders
range out from a central point; their homes. This concentration of
their offenses seems to offer support for the 'hot spot' theory.
If offenders tend to reside in patterns other than purely random
manners, then the possibility of non-random offense patterns would
mean overall crime rates would be greater in and around their
spatial range.
Capone, D. L., & Nichols, W. W. (1975). Crime and distance: An
analysis of offender behavior in space. Proceedings of the
Association of American Geographers, 7 (pp. 45-49).
Capone, D. L., & Nichols, W. W. (1976). Urban structure and
criminal mobility. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 199-213.
Carpenter, C., Glassner, B., Johnson, B. D., & Loughlin, J.
(1988). Kids, drugs, and crime. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Carroll, J. (1982). Committing a crime: The offender's decision.
In V. Konecni & E. Ebbesen (Eds.), The criminal justice system: A
social-psychological analysis. New York: Freeman.
Carroll, J., & Payne, J. (1978). A psychological approach to
deterrence: The evaluation of criminal opportunities. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1512-1520.
Carter, R. L., & Hill, K. Q. (1979). The criminal's image of the
city. New York: Pergaman.
Carter, R. L., & Hill, K. Q. (1980). Area-images and behavior: An
alternative perspective for understanding urban crime. In D.
Georges-Abeyie & K. Harries (Eds.), Crime: A Spatial Perspective
(pp. 193-204). New York: Columbia University Press.
Catallo, R. (1994). Lessons from success stories. Toronto,
Ontario: Safe City Committee, Planning and Development Department.
Chaiken, J., & Chaiken, M. (1982). Varieties of criminal behavior.
Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
Chapin, D. (1991, July). Making green spaces safer places:
Experiences in New York City. Landscape Architectural Review, 16-
18.
Charland, J. (1988). Women's personal security, fear of crime, and
the urban environment. Unpublished master's major paper, Faculty
of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
Chenoweth, R. E. (1978). The effects of territorial markings on
residents of two multi-family housing developments: A partial test
of Newman's theory of defensible space (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Illinois, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 38, 5088. (University Microfilms No. GAX78-03955).
Chimbos, P. (1973). A study of breaking and entering offenses in
Northern City, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Criminology and
Corrections, 15, 316-325.
Christensen, H. H. & Clark, R. N. (1978). Understanding and
controlling vandalism and other rule violations in urban
recreation areas. Proceedings of the National Urban Forest
Conference, 1. Washington, DC.
Christensen, H. H., Johnson, D. R., & Brooks, M. H. (1992).
Vandalism: Research, prevention and social policy (General
Technical Report PNW-GTR-293). Portland, OR: U.S. Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Research Station.
Chubb, M., & Westover, T. (1981). Anti-social behavior: Typology,
messages and implications for recreation resource managers. Land
use allocation. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central
Experiment Station.
Cimler, E., & Beach, L. (1981). Factors involved in juveniles'
decisions about crime. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 8, 275-286.
Citizens Task Force. (March, 1990). Central Park: The heart of the
city. New York: Citizens Task Force on the Use and Security of
Central Park.
This report is a compilation of a research study conducted to
improve understanding of use and security in New York's Central
Park. Notable findings include: the northern end of the park is
perceived to be the most unsafe; crime within the park is
noticeably lower than in surrounding neighborhoods; there are
relatively few police assigned to the expanse of the Park; crime
in the Park is perceived to be worse than it is; community
policing has been highly effective (including assigning radios to
vendors, and Interwatch radios to runners). Recommendations are
broad and specific, yet pertain primarily to policing, user
awareness and technologically oriented means for crime detection,
with some crime deterrence. Although terrain and vegetation are
mentioned as significant influences on perceptions of safety and
actual crime, recommendations are few for dealing with these
elements. Most notably, undergrowth and dead trees were cited for
removal, and sight lines were recommended to be kept clear.
Clarke, A., & Lewis, M. (1982). Fear of crime among the elderly.
British Journal of Criminology, 22, 49-62.
Clarke, R. V. (1980a). Situational crime prevention: Theory and
practice. British Journal of Criminology, 20, 136-147.
Clarke, R. V. (1980b). Situational crime prevention: Its theory
basis and practical scope. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime
and justice: An annual review of research, 4. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. V. (1992). Situational crime prevention: Successful
case studies. New York: Harrow and Heston.
Clarke, R. V., & Mayhew, P. (1992). Parking patterns and car theft
risks: Policy-relevant findings from the British Crime Survey. In
R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies: Vol. 3 (pp. 91-107).
Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Cornish, D. (1985). Modeling offenders'
decisions: A framework for research and policy. In M. Tonry & N.
Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research, 6.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Hope, T. (Eds.). (1984). Coping with burglary.
Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Clarke, R. V., & Mayhew, P. (Eds.). (1980). Designing out crime.
London: H.M.S.O.
A series of excellent articles on reducing crime and vandalism by
improving design and management of the environment in order to
reduce opportunities for offending. This is a 'situational'
approach to crime prevention and includes discussions of lock
technology, surveillance, siting, and publicity campaigns
Claster, D. (1967). Comparison of risk perception between
delinquents and non-delinquents. Journal of Criminal Law,
Criminology, and Police Science, 58: 80-86.
Cohen, J. (1983). Incapacitation as a strategy for crime control:
Possibilities and pitfalls. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime
and justice: An annual review of research, 5. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Cohen, L. E., & Cantor, D. (1981). Residential burglary in the
United States: Lifestyles and demographic factors associated with
the probability. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 18,
113-127.
Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate
trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review,
44: 588-608.
Conklin, J. (1971). Dimensions of community response to the crime
problem. Social Problems, 18, 373-385.
Conklin, J. (1975). The impact of crime. New York: Macmillan.
Conklin, J., & Bittner, E. (1973). Burglary in a suburb.
Criminology, 11, 206-231.
Conners, E. F. (1976) Public safety in park and recreation
settings. Parks and Recreation, 2 (1), 20-21, 55-56.
Conway, K. L. (1980). Public perceptions of, and attitudes toward,
crime in the parks of a major metropolitan area. Unpublished
masters' thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station.
Cook, P. (1980). Research in criminal deterrence: Laying the
groundwork for the second decade. In N. Morris & M. Tonry (Eds.),
Crime and justice: An annual review of research, 2. Chicago:
University of Chicago.
Cook, P. (1986). The demand and supply of criminal opportunities.
In N. Morris & M. Tonry (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual
review of research, 7. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Cooper-Marcus, C., & Sarkissian, W. (1986). Housing as if people
mattered: Site guidelines for medium-density family housing.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
This highly readable book covers a variety of user groups and site
design issues in housing developments. Chapter 13, Security and
Vandalism, deals exclusively with crime in such developments,
providing a rare variety of useful sketches and photographs to
illustrate the text. Design guidelines extensively reference past
research on the crime and housing and themselves offer suggestions
which appear to the reader as simple yet valuable. Included are
major subject headings are Penetrability, Territoriality,
Opportunities for Surveillance, Ambiguity, Resident Conflicts,
Vandalism, and Management.
Cornish, D. B. (1994). Crimes as scripts. D. Zahm & P. Cromwell
(Eds.), Proceedings of the International Seminar on Environmental
Criminology and Crime Analysis (pp. 30-45). Coral Gables, FL:
Florida Statistical Analysis Center, Florida Criminal Justice
Executive Institute.
Cornish, D. B. (1994). The procedural analysis of offending and
its relevance for situational prevention. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.),
Crime Prevention Studies: Vol. 3 (pp. 91-107). Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (Eds.). (1986). The reasoning
criminal: Rational choice perspective on offending. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (1987). Understanding crime
displacement: An application of rational choice theory.
Criminology, 25, 933-947.
Covington, J., & Taylor, R. B. (1990). Neighborhood structure,
neighborhood change, and fear of crime (Working Paper 19).
Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University, Center for Urban Policy
Research.
Cranz, G. (1980). Women in urban parks. Signs: Journal of Women in
Culture and Society, 5, 579-595.
Creechan, J., Hartnagel, T., & Silverman, R. (1978). Attitudes
toward crime and law enforcement. Unpublished manuscript.
Cromwell, P., Olson, J., & Avary, D. (1991). Breaking and
entering: An ethnographic analysis of burglary. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Crowe, T. D. (1988). An ounce of prevention: A new role for law
enforcement. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 57, 18-24.
Written by then director of the National Crime Prevention
Institute, this audiences-specific article gives a quick
introduction to the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
(CPTED) concept. It discusses the principals of CPTED and explains
via easily legible plan drawings examples of good and bad design.
Crowe, T. D. (1990, Fall). Designing safer schools. School
Safety,. pp. 9-13.
Crowe, T. D. (1991). Crime prevention through environmental
design. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Cunnen, J. M. L. (1990). The light solution to crime: Lighting
makes life secure. Lighting Design and Application, 20, 16-17+.
Cunningham, W. C., Strauchs, J. J., & Van Meter, C. W. (1991).
Private security: Patterns and trends. Research in Brief.
Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
D
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Davidson, R. N. (1981). Crime and environment. London: Croom Helm.
This work offers "no blockbusting theory" on crime and the
environment, but it does deal with spatial elements of crime
patterns. The book repeatedly examines the theme of "spatial
inequalities in patterns." The author's primary emphasis is upon
offenses against persons and their property.
Davidson, R. N. (1982). Micro-environments of violence:
Situational factors in violent crime. Paper presented at IBG Crime
and Space Conference, London.
Davidson, R. N. (1986). Micro-environments of assault: The role of
location in violent injury. In D. Herbert, D. Evans, R. Davidson,
S. Smith, & R. Mawby (Eds.), The geography of crime (Occasional
Paper 7, pp. 24-32). UK: North Staffordshire Polytechnic,
Department of Geography and Recreation Studies.
Davidson, R. N., & Locke, T. (1992). Local area profiles of crime:
Neighborhood crime patterns in context. In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe
and D. T. Herbert (Eds.), Crime, policing and place: Essays in
environmental criminology (pp. 60-72). New York: Routledge.
Day, K. (1995, March). Making the solution fit the crime. Sexual
assault prevention and women's use of the college campus. Paper
presented at EDRA 26, Boston, MA.
Decker, S. H., Wright, R., & Logie, R. H. (1993). Perceptual
deterrence among active residential burglars: A research note.
Criminology, 31, 135-147.
The authors, two of whom are well known for their work with active
and former offenders, here brief the reader on their findings
comparing responses by active criminals and a non-criminal control
group. The willingness to offend findings are important and not
altogether expected, but most importantly they point out that
"when studying perceptual deterrence in relation to serious
offenses such as residential burglary, it is important to include
real criminals."
DeFrances, C. J., & Titus, R. M. (1993). Urban planning and
residential burglary outcomes. In J. L. Nasar (Ed.), Landscape and
urban planning: Special issue on urban design research, 26,
179-191.
Dietrick, B. (1977). The environment and burglary victimization in
a metropolitan suburb. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of
the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, GA.
Donnely, P. (1988). Individual and neighborhood influences on fear
of crime. Sociological Focus, 22, 69-85.
Dowell, C. D. (1973, January). Panic in the parks. Parks and
Recreation.
DuBow, F. E., McCabe, E., & Kaplan, G. (1979). Reactions to crime:
A critical review of the literature. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration,
National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice.
Duffala, D. C. (1976). Convenience stores, robbery, and physical
environmental features. American Behavioral Scientist, 20,
227-246.
Dunlap, E., Johnson, B., Sanabria, H., Holliday, E., Lipsey, V.,
Barnett, M., Hopkins, W., Sobel, I., Randolph, D., & Chin, K.
(1990). Studying crack users and their criminal careers: The
scientific and artistic aspects of locating hard-to-reach subjects
and interviewing them about sensitive topics. Contemporary Drug
Problems, 17, 121-144.
Dunn, C. S. (1980a). Crime area research. In D. E. Georges-Abeyie
and K. D. Harries (Eds.), Crime: A spatial perspective. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Dunn, C. S. (1980b). Social area structure of suburban crime. In
D. E. Georges-Abeyie and K. D. Harries (Eds.), Crime: A spatial
perspective (pp. 136-137). New York: Columbia University Press.
Dwyer, W. O., & Murrell, D. S. (1985, January). Negligence in
visitor security. Parks and Recreation.
Dwyer, W. O., & Murrell, D. S. (1986, February). Future trends in
park protection. Parks and Recreation.
Dwyer, W. O., & Murrell, D. S. (1990, February). The ins and outs
of park law enforcement. Parks and Recreation.
E
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Eck, J. (1983). Solving crimes: The invention of burglary and
robbery. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Eck, J., Spelman, W. (1992). Thefts from vehicles in shipyard
parking lots. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime prevention:
Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Egan, J. (1991, July). Breaking through the myth of public safety.
Landscape Architectural Review, 7-10.
Ehrenhard, J. E. (Ed.). (1991). Coping with site looting:
Southeastern perspectives: Essays in archeological resource
protection. Atlanta, GA: National Park Service, Southeast Region,
Interagency Archeological Services Division.
Engstad, P. (1975). Environmental opportunities and the ecology of
crime. In R. Silverman & J. Teevan, Jr. (Eds.), Crime in Canadian
society (193-211). Toronto: Butterworth.
Ennis, P. (1967). Criminal victimization in the United States.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Erez, E. (1979). Situational analysis of crime: Comparison of
planned and impulsive offenses. (Doctoral dissertation). London:
University Microfilms International.
Erskine, H. (1974). The polls: Fear of violence and crime. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 38, 131-148.
Eskridge, C. (1983). Prediction of burglary. Journal of Criminal
Justice, 11, 67-76.
Estrella, S. (1988). Stemming crime through environmental design.
Security Management, 32, 86-89.
This two page article serves to introduce readers of this magazine
(security managers) to the origination and development of CPTED
(crime prevention through environmental design), and how they may
incorporate it into their businesses. While it is neither
empirical nor innovative, it does offer a quality, albeit very
brief, discussion of the topic.
Evans, D. J. (1987). Burglary within an affluent housing area.
Unpublished research note.
Evans, D. J. (1989). Geographical analyses of residential
burglary. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of crime.
New York: Routledge.
Evans, D. J., Fyfe, N. R., & Herbert, D. T. (1992). Crime,
policing and place: Essays in environmental criminology. New York:
Routledge.
Evans, D. J., & Herbert, D. T. (Eds.). (1989). The geography of
crime. New York: Routledge.
Evans, D. J., & Oulds, G. (1984). Geographical aspects of the
incidence of residential burglary in Newcastle-under-Lyme, UK.
TESG, 75, 344-355.
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Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1980). Crime in the United
States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Feeney, F. (1986). Robbers as decision-makers. In D. Cornish & R.
V. Clarke (Eds.), The reasoning criminal (pp. 53-71). New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Feeney, F., & Weir, A. (Eds.). (1973a). The prevention and control
of robbery: The response of the police and other agencies to
robbery, IV. Davis, CA: University of California.
This is the fourth of a four volume series of which this is the
most relevant to the topic at hand. The studies contained in this
volume seek to explain the criminal justice system's operation
regarding robbery. Underlying this purpose was the goal of
understanding the system's relevance to the problems of
controlling and preventing robbery.
Feeney, F., & Weir, A. (Eds.). (1973b). The prevention and control
of robbery: Summary. Davis, CA: University of California.
"This study has primarily been concerned with describing the
patterns of robbery in a single American city--Oakland,
California--and the response of the criminal justice agencies in
that city to the crime. It is an exploratory study designed to
produce the kind of detailed, integrated information necessary for
serious thinking and planning about the subject....The findings of
the study do...bring to light some important things that have been
unknown or little understood (pp. 3-4)."
Feldman, M. (1977). Criminal behavior: A psychological analysis.
New York: Wiley.
Felson, M. (1983). The ecology of crime. In Encyclopedia of Crime
and Justice. New York: Free Press-Macmillan.
Felson, M. (1986). Predicting crime potential at any point on the
city map. In P. Figlio, S. Hakim, & G. Rengert (Eds.),
Metropolitan crime patterns (139-160). New York: Criminal Justice
Press.
Felson, M. (1987). Routine activities and crime prevention in the
developing metropolis. Criminology, 25, 911-931.
Not an empirical study, this paper offers a discussion of research
on routine activities theory. Specifically, it addresses changes
in the urban fabric and how those evolving relationships affect
crime. The author focuses on streets and their impact on
lifestyles and hence on contact between offenders and the public,
referring to these meetings as "systematic accidents". He also
introduces the term "sociocirculatory system", a reference to the
latter impact of streets and vehicles on society, and especially
the lack of regular neighborhood contact and the familiarity with
people and place that results. Several excellent examples are
given where these changes have occurred. The "facility" is the
social structure which he suggests is the outcome. Examples
include industrial parks, mini-malls, and so-called smart office
buildings. In the long term the author suggests that the switch in
urban structure means "the facility would become the main
organizational tool for crime prevention (p. 926)." Finally, he
offers the designer as one of the most important emerging
preventers of crime as the "physical design and kinetic
management" of urban landscapes decides more and more how and how
often criminal and target meet.
Felson, M., & Cohen, L. (1980). Human ecology and crime: A routine
activity approach. Human Ecology, 8, 389-406.
Figlio, P.,. Hakim, S., & Rengert, G. (Eds.). (1986). Metropolitan
crime patterns. New York: Criminal Justice Press.
Fisher, B. S. (in press). Neighborhood business proprietors'
reactions to crime. Journal of Security Administration.
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1991, July). Prospect and refuge:
Fear of crime in and the building design characteristics. Paper
presented at the Joint ASCP and ASEOP International Conference,
Oxford, England.
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1992). Fear of crime in relation to
three exterior site features: Prospect, refuge, and escape.
Environment and Behavior, 24, 35-65.
"This article examines fear of crime in relation to exterior site
features...The authors propose and test a theoretical model that
posits that places that afford offenders refuge, and victims
limited prospect and escape, will be seen as unsafe...The findings
confirmed that fear of crime was highest in areas with refuge for
potential offenders and low prospect and escape for potential
victims."
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1995). Fear spots in relation to
microlevel physical cues: Exploring the overlooked. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 32, 214-239.
Fleming, R., & Burrows, J. (1986). The case for lighting as a
means of preventing crime. Home Office Research Bulletin, 22,
14-17. London: H.M.S.O.
Fletcher, J. E. (1983a). The estimated effect of user fees and
controlled visitor access in reducing actual and perceived safety
and security problems at Sommerville Lake, Texas. Vicksburg, MS:
U.S. Department of the Defense, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station.
Fletcher, J. E. (1983b). Assessing the impact of actual and
perceived safety and security problems on park use and enjoyment.
Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 1, 21-36.
Fletcher, J. E. (1984). Effect of controlled access and entrance
fees on park visitor safety and security. Journal of Park and
Recreation Administration, 2.
Florida Center for Community Design & Research. (1993). Safe
schools design guidelines: Recommendations for a safe & secure
environment in Florida's public schools (Project No.
4950-33-10-056-LO).
Fowler, F., & Mangione, T. (1979). Reducing residential crime and
fear: The Hartford neighborhood prevention program. Boston, MA:
Center for Survey Research, The University of Massachusetts,
Boston, the Joint Center for Urban Studies of MIT and Harvard
University, and Hartford Institute of Criminal and Social Justice.
Fowler, F., & Mangione, T. (1982). Neighborhood crime, fear, and
social control: A second look at the Hartford Program. Washington,
DC: Center for Survey Research.
Fowler, F., & Mangione, T. (1986). A three-pronged effort to
reduce crime and fear of crime: The Hartford experiment. In D.
Rosenbaum (Ed.), Community crime prevention: Does it work?.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Francis, M. (1984). Some different meanings attached to a city
park and community gardens. Landscape Journal, 101-112.
Furstenberg, F. (1971). Public reaction to crime in the streets.
The American Scholar, 40, 601-610.
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Gabor, T. (1981). The crime displacement hypothesis: An empirical
examination. Crime and Delinquency, 27, 390-404.
Gardiner, R. A. (1978). Design for safe neighborhoods: The
environmental security planning and design process. Washington,
DC: National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice.
This manual describes the concept of 'environmental security', a
comprehensive planning process for analyzing and understanding
neighborhood crime problems. The manual emphasizes a preventative
orientation to crime, utilizing physically and socially
'reinforcing' solutions.*
Garofalo, J. (1977a). Public opinion about crime: The attitudes of
victims and nonvictims in selected cities. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Garofalo, J. (1977b). Victimization and the fear of crime in major
cities. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American
Association for Public Opinion Research, Buck Hill Falls, PA.
Garofalo, J. (1979). Victimization and the fear of crime. Journal
of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16, 80-97.
Gates, L., & Rohe, W. (1987). Fear and reactions to crime. A
revised model. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 22, 425-453.
Geason, S., & Wilson, P. R. (1989). Designing out crime: Crime
prevention through environmental design. Canberra, Australia:
Australian Institute of Criminology.
Georges-Abeyie, D. E., & Harries, K. D. (Eds.). (1980). Crime: A
spatial perspective. New York: Columbia University Press.
Gibbs, J., & Shelly, P. (1982). Life in the fast lane: A
retrospective view by commercial thieves. Journal of Research in
Crime and Delinquency, 19, 299-330.
Gimblett, H. R., Itami, R. M., & Fitzgibbon, J. E. (1985). Mystery
in an information processing model of landscape preference.
Landscape Journal, 4, 87-95.
Gobster, P. H. (1993). Managing urban open spaces for naturalness:
Preferences of Chicago Housing Authority children. G. A. Vander
Stoep (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1993 Northeastern Recreation
Research Symposium (pp. 64-67). Radnor, PA: US Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment
Station.
Godbey, G., Patterson, A., & Brown, L. (1979). The relationship of
crime and fear of crime among the elderly to leisure behavior and
use of public leisure services. Washington, DC: American
Association of Retired Persons.
An extensive study by several of the leaders in elderly/crime
studies. "This study examined crime and fear of crime among the
elderly residing in urban areas in regard to its effect upon their
leisure and use of public recreation and park services. The study
also sought techniques useful in minimizing such crime and fear of
crimeFear of crime was found to be pervasive among the population
surveyed and victims were particularly fearful. Nine percent of
all those surveyed reported being the victim of crime during the
last year." Approximately 150 pgs.
Godbey, G. (1981). Old people and urban parks: An exploratory
study. Washington, DC: American Association of Retired Persons.
Goffman, E. (1963). Behavior in public places: Notes on social
organization of gathering. New York: Free Press.
Gold, S. M. (1969). A concept for outdoor recreation planning in
the inner city. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Gold, S. M. (1970). Urban violence and contemporary defensive
cities. Journal of American Institute of Planners, 36, 146-159.
Gold, S. M. (1972). Nonuse of neighborhood parks. Journal of the
American Institute of Planners, 38, 369-378.
Somewhat dated, this article discusses various implications/causes
of park non-use, including personal safety. Causes of non-use
presented include: Social Restraints, Access, Site Characteristics
and Personal Safety. The author discusses implications and offers
possible solutions to the problems discussed. This work may be of
more use for gaining a perspective on how the field has progressed
than for realizing new ideas.
Goldberg, F., & MIchelson, W. (1978). Defensible space as a factor
in combating fear among the elderly: Evidence from Sherbourne
Lanes. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Theory
Compendium. Arlington, VA: Westinghouse National Issues Center.
Golledge, R. G., & Stimson, R. S. (1997). Spatial behavior : A
geographic perspective. New York : Guilford Press.
Goodman, L. H., Miller, T., & DeForest, P. (1966). A study of the
deterrent value of crime prevention measures as perceived by
criminal offenders. Washington, DC: Bureau of Social Science
Research.
Gordon, M. T., & Riger, S. (1978). The fear of rape project.
Victimology: An International Journal, 3, 346-347.
Gordon, M. T., Riger, S., LeBailly, R., & Health, L. (1981).
Crime, women and the quality of urban life. In C. Simpson (Ed.),
Women and the American city. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Grant, A. (1988). Women and public urban space: Women's freedom of
movement in the City of Toronto. Unpublished master's thesis,
Department of Geography, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Greenberg, S. W. (1986). Fear and its relationship to crime,
neighborhood deterioration and informal social control. In J. M.
Bryne and R. J. Sampson (Eds.), The Social Ecology of Crime (pp.
47-62). New York: Springer Verlag.
Greenberg, S. W., & Rohe, W. M. (1984). Neighborhood design and
crime: A test of two perspectives. American Planning Association
Journal, 5, 48-61.
(This) paper assesses the validity of two perspectives on the
effect of the physical design of buildings, sites, and
neighborhoods on crime--the defensible space approach and the
opportunity approach. Study examined differences in physical
characteristics and various dimensions of informal social control
within and among three pairs of neighborhoods matched on racial
composition and economic status but with distinctly different
crime levels. Study results lend far more support to opportunity
model of crime in residential areas than to the defensible space
model.*
Greenberg, S. W., Williams, J. R., & Rohe, W. M. (1982). Safety in
urban neighborhoods: A comparison of physical characteristics and
informal territorial control in high and low crime neighborhoods.
Population and Environment, 5, 141-165.
Griswold, D. B. (1992). Crime prevention and commercial burglary:
A time series analysis. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime
prevention: Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Grove, G. R. (1976). Role theory considered as an influence on
criminal and deviant behavior in the Utah State Park system-a
manager problem. Unpublished master's thesis, Utah State
University, Logan.
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Hagedorn, J. (1990). Back in the field again: Gang research in the
Nineties. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Hammitt, W. E. (1980). Designing mystery into trail-landscape
experiences. Journal of Interpretation, 5, 16-19.
The author found that high visual preference was found for trail
hikers where scenes in photos showed a trail winding out of view,
but only when dense vegetation obscured the receding trail. This
lack of information is termed 'mystery'. [While mystery may prove
pleasing in some safe settings (such as remote Cranberry Glades,
WV, as in this study), it may make people feel unsafe in more
urban settings.]
Harries, K. D. (1974). The geography of crime and justice. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Harries, K. D. (1980). Crime and the environment. Springfield, IL:
Charles C. Thomas.
"This monograph reviews the environments of criminogenesis from a
broad ecological perspective, emphasizing both human and physical
phenomena. Human environments are examined from both the macro-
and microlevel perspectives...At the micro-, or intraurban, scale
a number of recent studies are examined, their strengths and
weaknesses underlined, and their essential findings
synthesized.(vii)"**
Harris, D. W. (1991). A safer city. The second stage report of the
Safe City Committee. Toronto, Ontario: Safe City Committee,
Planning and Development Department.
Harris, J. (1979). Lawless behavior: Are park managers part of the
problem? California Park and Recreation Society, 35, 42-43.
Harris, J., & Brown, P. (1972). Law enforcement in the forest.
Journal of Forestry, 70, 750-751.
Hartnagel, T. F. (1979). The perception and fear of crime:
Implications for neighborhood cohesion, social activity, and
community affect. Social Forces, 58, 176-193.
"This research examines the relationship between the perception
and fear of crime on the one hand and neighborhood cohesion,
social activity and affect for the community on the other...The
hypotheses that the perception of increased crime and the fear of
crime would be inversely related to neighborhood cohesion and
social activity were not supported. But as hypothesized, the fear
of crime was negatively related to affect for the community."
Harvey, M., & DiGiammerino, D. (1981). Anti-social behavior in
urban parks: A prospectus. Kent, OH: Department of Geography, Kent
State University.
Hassinger, J. R. (1983). Attributes of urban environments feared
by handgun carriers. EDRA (Environmental Design Research
Association), 14, 113-117.
Hassinger, J. R. (1985). Fear of crime in public environments.
Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 2, 289-300.
Heal, K., & Laycock, G. (Eds.). (1986). Situational crime
prevention: From theory into practice. London: H.M.S.O.
Healy, R. J. (1968). Design for security. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
Heinzelmann, F. (1981). Crime prevention and the physical
environment. In D. Lewis (Ed.), Reactions to Crime (pp. 87-101).
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hesseling, R. B. P. (1992). Displacement: A review of the
empirical literature. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention
Studies: Vol. 3 (pp. 197-230). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Henig, J., & Maxfield, M. G., (1978). Reducing fear of crime:
Strategies for intervention. Victimology, 3, 297-313.
Henshel, R., & Carey, S. (1975). Deviance, deterrence and
knowledge of sanctions. In R. Henshel & R. Silverman (Eds.),
Perception in Criminology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Herbert, D. (1982). The geography of urban crime. Harlow, UK:
Longman.
"This book is the latest in a series called Topics in Applied
Geography. (It) provides the reader with a superficial overview of
the field, some useful examples for teachers; presents detailed
description of spatial patterns, distributions, and correlates and
explores ways in which geographical research can widen its
horizons and hopefully reorder its priorities, especially with
regard to policy formulation."
Herbert, D., & Hyde, S. (1984). Residential crime and the urban
environment. A report for the Economic and Social Research
Council.
Herbert, D., & Hyde, S. (1985). Environmental criminology: Testing
some area hypotheses. Transactions I.B.G., 10, 259-274.
Herzog, T., & Smith, G. A. (1988). Danger, mystery, and
environmental preference. Environment and Behavior, 20, 320-344.
Heywood, I., Hall, N., & Redhead, P. (1992). Is there a role for
spatial information systems in formulating multi-agency crime
prevention strategies? In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe and D. T.
Herbert (Eds.), Crime, policing and place: Essays in environmental
criminology (pp. 73-92). New York: Routledge.
"This chapter considers...a spatial database and geographic
information system (GIS) approach to the storage, management and
manipulation of crime-related community data."**
Hierlihy, D. (1991). Green spaces/safer places: A forum on
planning safer parks for women. (Available from Safe City
Committee, City of Toronto Planning & Development Dept., 18th
Floor, East Tower, City Hall, Toronto, Ontario M5H 2N2).
Hindelang, M. (1974). Public opinion regarding crime, criminal
justice, and related topics. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 11, 101-116.
Hindelang, M. (1976). Criminal victimizations in eight American
cities: A descriptive analysis of common theft and assault.
Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Hindelang, M., Gottfredson, M., & Garafolo, J. (1978). Victims of
personal crime: An empirical foundation for a theory of personal
victimization. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Hope, T. & Shaw, M. (Eds.). (1988). Communities and crime
reduction . London: H.M.S.O.
"The purpose of this book, which represents the outcome of a
conference convened by the Home Office Research and Planning Unit
in 1986, is to bring together some current ideas, experience,
practice and policy, from those who have been working on the
problems of how to prevent crime....In so doing, it is hoped to
clarify directions for future policy and practice. The authors,
coming as they do from a number of different countries and
backgrounds, illustrate the current collective concern with crime
prevention (p. 1)."
Hough, M. (1987). Offenders' choice of target: Findings from
victim surveys. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, 355-367.
This paper discusses research on offender decision making and
presents results from the1982 and1984 British Crime Surveys (BCS).
The discussion of previous research is effective, particularly in
pointing out difficulties posed by various methods. The BCS
results presented focus on burglary. With over 11,000 homes
surveyed in the BCS the author's findings bear consideration. He
writes that crime surveys "offer a useful corrective to some of
the distortions in conventional studies of target selectionThe
main points to emerge about burglars' choice of targets are as
follows:
oproximity is a key factor determining choice of target for most
burglars;
oburglars select poor homes no less than those with average
incomes, but affluent homes are more at risk than others;
oaccessibility factors are taken in account-homes frequently left
empty and those with rear access are more vulnerable, for example;
and as many as half of all burglaries end in failure (p. 366)."
Hudson, C. (1983). Residential burglary. Home Office Research
Bulletin, 15. London: H.M.S.O.
Hull, R. B., & Harvey, A. (1989). Explaining the emotion people
experience in suburban parks. Environment and Behavior, 21,
323-345.
"In general, pleasure increases as tree density increases and
understory density decreases...arousal increases with increasing
understory vegetation density...and people prefer parks that are
both pleasant and arousing. Results suggest that considerable
control over affect can be exercised through manipulation of a
park's physical characteristics." The implications of these
findings for safety are reflected in the studies which have
investigated vegetation from the safety standpoint. Those results
of those works converge with those of these authors in that lower
vegetation is perceived negatively and arousal increases with
increased understory. Heightened feelings of awareness from a
perception of lowered safety may account for this study's findings
on increased arousal.
Hunter, A., & Baumer, T. (1982). Street traffic, social
integration and fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 52, 122-131.
Hunter, R. D., & Jeffery, C. R. (1992). Preventing convenience
store robbery through environmental design. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.),
Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. New York:
Harrow & Heston.
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Jackson, B. (1969). A thief's primer. New York: MacMillan.
This book delves into the life and definition of so called 'career
criminals'. In a unique format it consists of the recorded and
recompiled comments of such an individual, in this case a thief,
whose trust the author had earned during contact within a
correctional facility. Although dated, the thief's discourses are
detailed and comprehensive.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities.
New York: Random House.
Jeffery, C. R. (1971). Crime prevention through environmental
design. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Jeffery, C. R. (1976). Criminal behavior and the physical
environment. The American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 149-174.
Three articles in this issue are most noteworthy: Jeffery's
'Criminal behavior and the physical environment: A perspective,'
Dennis C. Duffala's 'Convenience stores, armed robbery, and
physical environmental features,' and Thomas A. Reppetto's 'Crime
prevention through environmental policy: A critique.' *
Jeffery, C. R. (1977). Crime prevention through environmental
design. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Environmental crime control adheres to the classical principles of
prevention of crime before it occurs, and certainty of consequence
for behavior, but shifts emphasis from punishment and the
individual offender to reinforcement and the environment.*
Jeffery, C. R., Hunter, D., & Griswood, J. (1987). Crime
prevention and computer analyses of convenience store robberies in
Tallahassee, Florida. Paper presented at Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL.
Jeffrey, M. (1968). A burglar's life. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
Joyce, D. V. (1976, September). Crime in parks: 8 alternatives
that might work for your park system. Park Maintenance.
Jubenville, A., Twight, B. W., & Becker, R. H. (1987). Public
safety. Outdoor Recreation Management: Theory and Application.
State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
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Kaiser, R. A., Fletcher, J. A., & Steele, R. J. (1989). Legal,
actual and perceived implications of safety and security problems
at public beaches. Coastal Management, 17 (4).
Katzman, M. (1980). The contribution of crime to urban decline.
Urban Studies, 17, 277-286.
Keeley, R. M., & Edney, J. J. (1983). Model house designs for
privacy, security, and social interaction. Journal of Social
Psychology, 119, 219-228.
This brief paper was purposed to study interaction between the
sexes as "(c)ollege undergraduates were asked to construct models
of houses that would promote privacy, security, or social
interaction for occupants." While interesting for its own sake,
the study likewise touches lightly upon security factors as
perceived by the study population.
Kirk, N. L. (1986). Perceptions of safety in the campus
environment. Unpublished paper, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana.
Kirk, N. L. (1988). Factors affecting perceptions of safety in a
campus environment. EDRA (Environmental Design Research
Association), 19, 215-222.
Kirk, N. L. (1988). Factors affecting perceptions of safety in a
campus environment. In J. Sime (Ed.), Safety in the built
environment (pp. 285-296). London: E. & F.N. Spon.
Kirk, N. L. (1989). Factors affecting perceptions of social safety
in public open spaces. Unpublished masters thesis, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana.
Knopf, R. C., & Dustin, D. L. (1992). A multidisciplinary model
for managing vandalism and depreciative behavior in recreation
settings. In M. Manfredo (Ed.), Influencing human behavior: Theory
and application in recreation and tourism (pp. 209-261).
Champaign?Urbana, IL: Sagamore Press.
Koehler, C. T. (1988). Urban design and crime: A partially
annotated bibliography. Chicago, IL: Council of Planning
Librarians, No. 218.
This work consists of 1) a brief Introduction, 2) a section on
General Theory and Applications, and 3) a section on Urban Design
and Crime, yielding a total of twenty-one pages in all. The
majority of works cited pertain to urban planning and
architecture, specifically housing. While many of the pieces
listed in this work may also be found in this bibliography, there
are a great many which are not listed herein.
Kornblum, W., & Williams, T. (1983). New Yorkers and Central Park:
A report to the Central Park Conservancy. New York: Sociology
Department, Graduate Center, CUNY.
Kowalski, G. S., Dittmann, R. L., Jr., & Bung, W. L. (1980).
Spatial distribution of criminal offenses by States, 1970-1976.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 4-25.
Kramer, J. J. (Ed.). (1977). The role of behavioral sciences in
physical security. National Bureau of Standards.
Kreps, G. M (1977). A study of crime in rural Ohio: The
relationship between ecological factors and a rural crime index
(Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 39 (5). (University Microfilms No. 77-24,
653)
Krupat, E., & Kubzansky, P. E. (1987). Designing to deter crime.
Psychology Today, (Oct.), 58-61.
Koppel, H. (1987). Lifetime likelihood of victimization. Technical
Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of
Justice Statistics.
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Landles, R. A. (1970). Criminal activity in selected Seattle
parks. Seattle, WA: Department of Parks and Recreation.
Latane, B., & Darley, J. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why
doesn't he help? New York: Appleton-Centry-Croft.
Law enforcement: Citizens safety in parks and recreation. (1970,
November). Parks and Recreation.
Laycock, G., & Heal, K. (1989). Crime prevention: The British
experience. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of
crime. New York: Routledge.
Leach, B,. Lesiuk, E., & Morton, P .E.. (1986). Perceptions of
fear in the urban environment. Women and Environments, Spring,
10-12.
LeBeau, J. L. (1987a). Environmental design as a rationale for
prevention. In E. H. Johnson (Ed.), Handbook on crime
LeBeau, J. L. (1987b). The journey to rape: Geographic distance
and the rapist's method of approaching the victim. Journal of
Police Science and Administration, 15, 129-161.
Lee, R. (1972). The social definition of outdoor recreation
places. In W. Burch (Ed.), Social behavior, natural resources and
the environment. New York: Harper & Row.
Lee, Y., & Egan, F. (1972). The geography of urban crime: The
spatial pattern of serious crime in the City of Denver.
Proceedings of the Association of American Geographers, 4, 59-64.
LeJeune, R. (1977). The management of a mugging. Urban Life, 6,
123-148.
LeJeune, R., & Alex, N. (1973). On being mugged: The event and its
aftermath. Urban Life and Culture, (October), 259-287.
The authors interviewed 24 victims of 'muggings', having them
relive their experiences, their feelings, and any meanings they
attached to the incident. The article was written at a time when
this nation was just beginning to pay attention to this form of
personal attack. Hence, much of what it has to offer is victim
response, rather than empirical data or quantifiable data. This
may be attributable to the sociological background of the
researchers. None-the-less, the reader can expect to find insights
into the process of muggings (including victim response), but more
so into the changed psyche of the victim, who, the authors say,
begins to see the city as "a jungle". Also of considerable
interest is the discussion of victims' feelings of safety in
familiar environments. The authors suggest that "ecological
sentiments may act as blinders" to changes in safety. That is,
they failed to accept or recognize how their environment was
changing over the years, or even over a matter of minutes in the
case of a mugging itself.
Lentz, P. Sternhall, R., & Lyle, C. (1977, April). The limits of
lighting: The New Orleans experiment in crime reduction. The
Mayor's Criminal Justice Coordinating Council.
Letkemann, P. (1973). Crime as work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Levy?Leboyer, C. (1984). Vandalism: Behavior and motivations. New
York: North Holland Printing.
Lewis, D. A. (Ed.). (1981). Reactions to crime. Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage.
Lewis, D. A., & Maxfield, M. G. (1980). Fear in the neighborhoods:
An investigation of the impact of crime. Journal of Research in
Crime and Delinquency, 17, 160-189.
Lewis, D. A., & Salem, G. (1981). Community crime prevention: An
analysis of a developing strategy. Crime and Delinquency, 27,
405-421.
Ley, D., & Cybriwsky, R. (1974). Urban graffiti as territorial
markers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 64,
491-505.
Ley, D., & Cybriwsky, R. (1974). The spatial ecology of stripped
cars. Environment and Behavior, 6, 53-67.
Light, R., Nee, C., and Ingham, H. (1993). Car theft: The
offender's perspective. Home Office Research Study (No. 130).
London, UK: HMSO.
Loewen, L. J., Steel, G. D., & Suedfeld, P. (1993). Perceived
safety from crime in the urban environment. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 13, 323-331.
Logie, R. H., Wright, R., & Decker, S. H. (1992). Recognition
memory performance and residential burglary. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 6, 109-123.
"This paper reports two studies of recognition memory performance
in groups of juvenile residential burglars. Memory performance of
the burglars was compared in Experiment 1 with police officers and
a group of adult householders. In Experiment 2 a second group of
juvenile burglars was compared with a group of juvenile offenders
who had no experience of housebreaking. All groups were asked
first to identify houses in photographs that would be attractive
or otherwise to burglars. Subsequently, subjects were given a
surprise recognition test where, in some photographs, physical
features of houses was significantly better members of the
law-abiding public. In Experiment 2 the juvenile burglars'
recognition memory performance was significantly better than the
other offenders. These results are interpreted in terms of the
burglary subjects possessing a level of expertise associated with
their experience of offending."
Lowman, J. (1983). Geography, crime and social control.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Lowman, J. (1989). The geography of social control: Clarifying
some themes. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of
crime. New York: Routledge.
Luedtke, G. & Associates (1970). Crime and the physical city:
Neighborhood design techniques for crime prevention. Springfield,
VA: National Technical Information Service.
Lynch, G., & Atkins, S. (1988). The influence of personal security
fears on women's travel patterns. Transportation, 15, 275-277.
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MacDonald, J. E., & Gifford, R. (1989). Territorial cues and
defensible space theory: The burglar's point of view. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 9, 193-205.
To test Newman's 'defensible space' theory incarcerated burglars
were interviewed as they rated photos taken of residences on
"vulnerability". "As the theory predicts, easily surveillable
houses were rated as the least vulnerable targets. Contrary to the
theory, evidence of territorial concern had no effect...or
actually increased vulnerability.
Macleod, L. (1989). The city for women: No safe place. Ottawa,
Canada: Secretary of State Canada for the European & North
American Conference of Urban Safety & Crime Prevention.
Maguire, M. (1980). The impact of burglary upon victims. British
Journal of Criminology, 20, 261-275.
Maguire, M., & Bennett, T. (1982). Burglary in a dwelling: The
offense, the offender, and the victim. London: Heinemann.
Malt, H. L., & Associates, Inc. (1972). An analysis of public
safety as related to the incidence of crime in parks and
recreation areas in central cities. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development. (272 pgs.; NTIS No.
PB220770).
This extensive report remains one of the most detailed
examinations of crime in recreation areas to date. Sixteen cities
were studied out of the 49 initially contacted. Three categories
of parks (sub-neighborhood, neighborhood, community) were examined
in each of the cities. City officials and park patrons were
queried, and official statistics were compiled. Among the goals of
the study were determination of: 1) the primary crime problem(s)
facing the parks, 2) which parks were experiencing crime problems,
3) the sources of the problems, and 4) the amounts and types of
crimes occurring. Also examined were attitudes of the public. It
is worth noting that several of the report's general findings
mirror our own findings some twenty-three years later. [Persons
wishing to obtain a copy of the report may be forced to contact
the library at HUD]
Maltz, M. D., Gordon, A. C., & Friedman, W. (1990). Mapping crime
in its community setting: Event geography analysis. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Mann, L., & Hageirk, G. (1971, September). The new
environmentalism: Behaviorism and design. Journal of the American
Institute of Planners.
Martin, S. (1994, August). Ripped off: In the time it takes you to
read this headline, this man can steal your bike. Bicycling, pp.
41-45.
This article, which discusses means for theft of bicycles with
bike thieves, reports briefly on the occurrence of so-called
"bike-jackings" in urban recreation areas.
Matthews, R. (1992). Developing more effective strategies for
curbing prostitution. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime
prevention: Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Mawby, R. I. (1977). Defensible space: A theoretical and empirical
appraisal. Urban Studies, 14, 169-179.
The author argues that by oversimplifying the nature of crime and
the qualities of defensible space, Newman has failed to consider
the possibilities for contradictions within the key elements of
the theory that might also threaten security.*
Mayhew, P. (1979). Defensible space: The current status of a crime
prevention theory. The Howard Journal, 18, 150-159.
Mayhew, P. (1984). Target hardening: How much of an answer. In R.
Clarke & T. Hope (Eds.), Coping with burglary. Boston:
Kluwe-Nijhoff.
Mayhew, P., Clarke, R., Burrows, J., Hough, J., & Winchester, S.
(1979). Crime in public view (Home Office Research Study No. 49).
London: H.M.S.O.
An excellent short monograph assessing the use of surveillance to
reduce different types of crime. The authors argue that 'casual'
surveillance by the public is generally less effective than
surveillance by residents and employees of an environment.*
Mayhew, P., Clarke, R., Sturman, A., & Hough, M. (1976). Crime as
opportunity (Home Office Research Study No. 34). London: H.M.S.O.
McCormick, M. (1974). Robbery prevention: What the literature
reveals--A literature review and annotated bibliography with a
list of information sources. La Jolla, CA: Western Behavioral
Sciences Institute.
McDonald, A. D., & Newcomer, R. J. (1973). Differences in
perception of a city park as a supportive or threatening
environment. In D. Gray & D. A. Pelegrino (Eds.), Reflections on
the recreation and park movement. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown Co.
"This paper reports on a pilot study which was intended to find
out how and in what ways a city park is important, i.e.,
supportive to its elderly users and to determine why other elderly
persons who live in proximity to the park do not use it."
McInnes, P., Burgess, G., Hann, R., & Axon, L. (1982). The
environmental design and management (EDM) approach to crime
prevention in residential environments (User Report, No. 1984-84).
Ottawa, Canada: Report for the Research Division of the Department
of the Solicitor General, Programs Branch.
McIntyre, J. (1967). Public attitudes toward crime and law
enforcement. Annals, 374, 34-46.
McKenzie, J. S., & McKenzie, R. L. (1978). Composing urban spaces
for security, privacy and outlook. Landscape Architecture, Sept.,
392-398.
McNamara, J. (1984). Safe and sane: The sensible way to protect
yourself, your loved ones, your property and possessions. New
York: Putnam.
McPherson, M. (1978). Realities and perception of crime at the
neighborhood level. Victimology, 3, 319-328.
Merry, S. E. (1981). Defensible space undefended: Social factors
in crime control through environmental design. Urban Affairs
Quarterly, 16, 397-422.
"The notion that crime can be prevented through environmental
design is a recent and promising idea emerging from the fields of
architecture and urban planning. However, despite intriguing
correlation's between crime rates and features of building design,
we understand little about the social processes which induce
residents to intervene to stop crimes and disorderly behavior in
the spaces around them. This article investigates the conditions
under which residents of an American inner-city housing project
act and fail to act to defend both architecturally defensible and
undefensible spaces. Because of the fragmented social fabric, even
architecturally defensible spaces here are undefended."**
Merton Borough. (1994). Designing out crime. Morden, Surrey:
Available from Planning Services Dept., Merton Civic Centre,
London Road, Morden, Surrey SM4 5DX, UK.
Michael, S. E., & Hull, R. B. (1994). Effects of vegetation on
crime in urban parks. Interim report for the U.S. Forest Service
and the International Society of Arboriculture.
Mieczkowski, T. (1986). Geeking up and throwing down: Heroin
street life in Detroit. Criminology, 24, 645-666.
The authors reports an ethnographic study of 15 street-level
heroin dealers done over 3 months. Findings relevant to CPTED
include that since World War II heroin sales have moved
increasingly away from the fixed locations of the "Dope-Pad
System" towards "runners" and "crews" dealing on the street. He
further found that "the runner systemis designed to market heroin
in public places, most typically either at the curbside of public
roads or other open locales such as areas in front of shops and
stores, playgrounds, parks, and schoolyards (p. 648)." "Stations",
or selling positions, were typically on sidewalks or just off of
roadways. Planned escapes were found in crews, as were the need
for "guns" (i.e., armed crew guards) to be able to "observe and
monitor" the surroundings. Further, the surrounding environment
was regularly used for caching a stash of drugs and/or money. This
latter tactic was also uncovered by Michael and Hull (1994).
Miller, E. S. (1981). Bryant Park: A comprehensive evaluation of
its image and use with implications for urban open space design.
New York: City University of New York, Center for Human
Environments.
Miller, E. S. (1981). Crime threat to land value and neighborhood
vitality. In P.J. Brantingham & P.L. Brantingham (Eds.),
Environmental criminology (pp. 111-119). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Minor, W. (1978). Deterrence research: Problems of theory and
method. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law Society
Association, Minneapolis, MN.
Molumby, T. (1976). Patterns of crime in a university housing
project. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 247-259.
The author of this early work employs spatial analysis to study
location of crimes. The study lacks a theoretical basis for
conclusions, or hypotheses to test spatial theory. Causes of
patterns in the study may reflect some reading into the findings
as far as causes of patterns are concerned.
Molumby, T. (unknown). Evaluation of the effect of physical design
changes on criminal behavior (Doctoral dissertation, St. Ambrose
University).
Moore, M. H., & Trojanowikz, R. C. (1988, November). Policing and
the fear of crime. Perspectives on Policing, 3.
Moran, R., & Dolphin, C. (1986). The defensible space concept:
Theoretical and operational explication. Environment and Behavior,
18, 396-416.
More, T. A. (1985). Central city parks: A behavioral perspective.
Unpublished paper, Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.
The author "monitored the use of two central city parks--one in
Boston, one in Hartford--around the clock during the summer of
1978, recording the social characteristics and behaviors of the
park users." The result is a unique look into the patterns of use
in two urban parks. Included within the study were figures on
deviant behavior (e.g., selling marijuana), problem behaviors
(e.g., fighting, begging), and other actions which were either
unlawful or indicated possible criminal characteristics. The
findings suggested "that people's use of public parks can be
influenced by the park's landscape." Specific design elements are
discussed with regard to their impact on users (e.g., vegetation,
pathways, edge effects).
Moriarty, T. (1975). Crime, commitment and the responsive
bystander: Two field experiments. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 31, 370-376.
Muluhill, E., & Tumin, M. (1969). Crimes of violence, 1-3.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Musheno, M. C., Levine, J. P., & Palumbo, D. J. (1977, February).
Is "defensible space" a defensible theory?: An evaluation of
closed-circuit television as a crime prevention strategy.
Presented at the National Conference on Criminal Justice sponsored
by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Washington, DC.
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Nager, A. R., & Wenworth, W. R. (1976). Bryant Park: A
comprehensive evaluation of its image and use with implications
for urban open space design. New York: City University of New
York, Center for Human Environments.
Nasar, J.L., & Fisher, B.S. (1992). Design for vulnerability: Cues
and reactions to fear of crime. Sociology and Social Research, 76,
48-58.
The authors describe physical environment cues which may affect
the public's fear of crime. In the process they developed a theory
regarding the relationship between these cues, fear, and
consequent reactions. The study examined the physical environment
of university campuses. Cues which heightened fear were: "poor
prospect for the passerby due to inadequate lighting, blocked
escape for the passerby, and concealment for the offender".
Responses to cues and fear were also recorded. The study's results
are consistent with recent findings which suggest that informed
design of micro-level physical settings and their features may be
an effective means for deterring criminals. Consequently, the
authors suggest that it may also be effective at reducing fear. As
this and other studies point out, although fear may not be an
adequate predictor of crime, it has salient negative consequences
which effect people even in the absence of experienced crime.
Article includes photographs and site plans of the study areas.
Nasar, J. L., & Fisher, B. S. (1993). "Hot spots" of fear and
crime: A multi-method investigation. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 13, 187-206.
This study takes a different slant on examining the geography of
crime. It differentiates between macro and micro-level site
characteristics, examining how the latter may contribute to
concentrated areas of crime, or 'hot spots'. Although this article
does not offer the first investigation of hot spots, it does
provide the most thorough discussion to date. Prospect,
concealment and boundedness were the proximate cues studied, with
female college students and campus police serving as subjects.
Fear was also examined on the same levels. "Hot spots of fear and
crime converged at the micro level. Both fear and crime increased
in areas characterized by low prospect, high concealment, and high
boundedness." Design measures are discussed regarding micro level
deterrence (e.g., lighting, vegetation maintenance, cameras).
Nasar, J. L., Fisher, B. S., & Grannis, M. (1993). Proximate
physical cues to fear of crime. In J. L. Nasar (Ed.), Landscape
and urban planning: Special issue on urban design research, 26,
161-178.
Nasar, J. L., Julian, D., Buchman, S., Humphreys, D., & Mrohaly,
M. (1983). The emotional quality of scenes and observation points:
A look at prospect and refuge. Landscape Planning, 10, 355-361.
National Crime Prevention Institute. (1986). Understanding crime
prevention. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Nee, C., & Taylor, M. (1988). Residential burglary in the Republic
of Ireland: A situational perspective. The Howard Journal, 27,
105-116.
Neiburg, H. (1974). Crime prevention by urban design. Society, 12,
41-47.
Newman, O. (1972a). Defensible space: Crime prevention through
urban design. New York: Macmillan.
The original publication of this book in 1972 changed the nature
of the crime prevention and environmental design field. The book
details and describes the 'defensible space' theory, and includes
extensive discussion of crime and the physical form of housing
based on crime data analysis from New York City public housing.*
Newman, O. (1972b). Defensible space: People and design in the
violent city. London: Architectural Press.
Newman, O. (1973a). Architectural design for crime prevention.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Newman, O. (1973b). A design for improving residential security.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Newman, O. (1976). Design guidelines for creating defensible
spaces. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
This handbook examines how different social, physical, managerial,
and economic factors combine to produce secure housing. Other
chapters cover the evolution of multi-family housing, design
guidelines for buildings, site planning guidelines, two
prototypical designs, and discussions regarding security
hardware.*
Newman, O., & Frank, K. (1980). Factors influencing crime and
instability in urban housing developments. Washington, DC:
National Institute of Justice, LEAA, U.S. Government Printing
Office.
Newman, O., & Frank, K. (1982). The effects of building size on
personal crime and fear of crime. Population and Environment, 5,
203-220.
Normandeau, A. (1968). Trends and patterns in crimes of robbery.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania,
State College.
O & P
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O'Donnell, C. R., & Lydgate, T. (1980). The relationship to crimes
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Recommendations for enhancing users' perceptions of safety in
urban parks. Unpublished master's thesis, Department of Landscape
Architecture, University of Guelph, Canada.
Page, R. A., & Moss, M. K. (1976). Environmental influences on
aggression: The effects of darkness and proximity of victim.
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This brief paper offers support for the authors' predictions
concerning the relationship between lighting and aggression. In a
somewhat unusual test, subjects' willingness to punish fellow
participants via an electrical shock system (which offered varying
magnitudes of current) was monitored as contact with the 'victim'
was decreased via lighting and physical proximity. Shocks tended
to be more powerful and lasted longer when rooms were more dimly
lit. These findings, if found to be sound, could expand the
theoretical support to the age old belief that lit areas are
safer.
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environment: A social control perspective. Paper presented at the
American Psychological Association Meeting.
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fear of crime in the elderly. In D. Conway (Ed.), Designing for
the elderly. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects.
Patterson, A. H. (1977). Territorial behavior and fear of crime in
the elderly. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University.
Patterson, A. H. (1978). Crime and fear among the elderly: The
role of the physical environment. Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design Compendium. Arlington, VA: Westinghouse
National Issues Center.
Patterson, A. H. (1978). Territorial behavior and fear of crime in
the elderly. Environmental Behaviour and Non-verbal Behaviour, 2,
131-144.
Payne, J., Braunstein, M., & Carroll, J. (1978). Exploring
predecisional behavior: An alternative approach to decision
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17-44.
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estate. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime prevention:
Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
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security that works. Landscape Architect & Specifier News, 12,
28-29.
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environment of street blocks and resident perceptions of crime and
disorder: Implications of theory and measurement. Journal of
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With data based on over 400 subject interviews, the authors
developed and tested both a procedure and an instrument to assess
"crime- and fear-related features" of the urban residential
settings. Various cues were examined (i.e., symbols of social and
physical disorder, territorial functioning, and architectural
'defensible space' features) while, theoretically, the 'disorder'
thesis, which suggests that residents' confidence in their
neighborhood will be negatively impacted by physical incivilities,
was tested, with support being found for it. Their findings are in
agreement with many others. The authors point out that an
important next step is to isolate "exactly what aspects of the
environment most affect resident perceptions and what the nature
of those perceptions are."
Perkins, D. D., Wandersman, A., Rich, R. C., & Taylor, R. B.
(1993). The physical environment of street crime: Defensible
space, territoriality and incivilities. Journal of Environmental
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Perlgut, D. (1983). Vandalism: The environmental crime. Australian
Journal of Social Issues, 18, 209-216.
Because it is committed against physical objects and because
physical design and setting play an important role, vandalism is
the ultimate 'environmental' crime. Often misunderstood by
designers, planners, facility managers, and administrators,
vandalism can be more effectively controlled through an
understanding of the patterns and environmental context in which
it occurs. Social situations conducive to vandalism are discussed,
e.g., unstable neighborhoods, insensitive school administrators
and teachers, and workplaces with rapid staff turnover. S. Cohen's
typology of vandalism and methods for preventing or controlling it
('Campaigning against vandalism.' In Vandalism, edited by C. Ward.
London: Architectural Press, 1973) are described.*
Perry, K. (1984). Measuring the effectiveness of neighborhood
crime watch. Law and Order, 32, 37-40.
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the parks. Parks and Recreation.
Pesce, E. J., Kohn, I. R., & Kaplan, H. M. (1978, July). Crime
prevention through environmental design: Final report, phases II
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Issues Center.
Peterson, M., Braiker, H., & Polich, S. (1981). Who commits
crimes: A survey of prison inmates. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager,
Gunn and Hain.
Pettiway, L. E. (1982). Mobility of robbery and burglary
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facilities. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime prevention:
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measures in two parking areas. Recognizing that theft of autos and
thefts from autos require different preventative measures, the
author examined changes in each type of crime. The author suggests
that adequate surveillance, either formal or informal, is the most
important measure which can be taken in attempting to reduce
offenses. Design solutions are offered for proactive and reactive
attempts to secure parking areas, including parking structures.
Ptersilia, J., Greenwood, P., & Lavin, M. (1977). Criminal careers
of habitual felons. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
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Chicago: University of Chicago Research, Department of Geography.
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Cleveland, Ohio. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 175-198.
R
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Rainwater, L. (1966). Fear and the house-as-haven in lower class.
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and fear: A review (Paper 29). London: Home Office, Crime
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and its implications for urban architecture and planning. Journal
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compared with the place where the offense charged in arrest. A
report to President's Commission on Law Enforcement and
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Printing Office.
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by crime and its control: Offenders and victims. Crime Prevention
Through Environmental Design Compendium. Arlington, VA:
Westinghouse National Issues Center.
Reiss, A. J. (1983). Crime control and the quality of life.
American Behavioral Scientist, 27, 43-58.
(The) author investigates the association of social and
environmental variables and criminal activity by comparing
geographical areas of a country or communities and neighborhoods
within a city. He approaches the subject in terms of considering
the quality of life in communities undergoing change. Identifies a
number of critical criminogenic factors: (1) location of offenders
relative to their victims, (2) attractiveness of communities to
offenders, (3) offender awareness of criminal opportunities, (4)
offender case of entry and egress of communities to be victimized,
(5) mixed land use, (6) the location of certain legal and illegal
businesses.*
Reiss, A. J., & Tonry, M. (Eds.). (1986). Communities and Crime.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rengert, G. F. (1975). Some effects of being female on criminal
spatial behavior. The Pennsylvania Geographer, 13, 10-18.
Rengert, G. F. (1975). The journey of crime: An empirical analysis
of spatially constrained female mobility. Paper presented at the
1975 annual meeting of the Association of American Geographers at
Milwaukee. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University.
Rengert, G. F. (1980). Spatial aspects of criminal behavior. In D.
Georges-Abeyie & K. Harris (Eds.), Crime: A spatial perspective
(pp. 47-57). New York: Columbia University Press.
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crime. Unpublished paper presented to Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences, St. Louis, MO.
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In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of crime. New York:
Routledge.
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foundations and policy implications. In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe
and D. T. Herbert (Eds.), Crime, policing and place: Essays in
environmental criminology (pp. 109-117). New York: Routledge.
Rengert, G. F., & Bost, R. (1987). The spillover of crime from a
housing project. Unpublished paper presented to Academy of
Criminal Justice Sciences, St. Louis, MO.
Rengert, G. F., & Wasilchick, J. (1980). Residential burglary: The
awareness and use of extended space. Paper presented at the
American Society of Criminology Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA.
Rengert, G. F., & Wasilchick, J. (1985). Suburban burglary: A time
and a place for everything. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
Rengert, G. F., & Wasilchick, J. (1989). Space, time and crime:
Ethnographic insights into residential burglary. Final report
submitted to the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, U.S. Department of Justice.
Reppetto, T. A. (1974). Residential crime. Cambridge, MA:
Ballinger.
Reppetto, T. A. (1976a). Crime prevention and the displacement
phenomenon. Crime and Delinquency, 22, 166-177.
Reppetto, T. A. (1976b). Crime prevention through environmental
policy. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 275-288.
Reppetto, T. A. (1977). Report on offender interviews in Hartford.
New York, NY: John Jay College of Criminal Justice..
Rhodes, W., Conly, C., & Schachter, C. (1980). The criminal
commute: A study of the geography of crime and justice in the
District of Columbia. Washington, DC: Institute for Law and Social
Research.
Riger, S. (1985). Crime as an environmental stressor. Journal of
Community Psychology, 13, 270-280.
Riger, S., Gordon, M. T., & LeBailly, R. K. (1982). Coping with
crime: Women's use of precautionary behaviors. American Journal of
Community Psychology, 10, 369-386.
This study included 299 women from metropolitan cities around the
United States. The authors identified a pair of precautionary
actions used by women: "avoiding dangerous situations and managing
risks in the face of possible danger." Fear, perceived physical
competence, race and education were found to be strong predictors
of avoidance. Proximal physical cues which indicate danger or
decay (e.g., vandalism) were found to prompt risk-management more
so than do general crime rates. This ties in with
micro-environment findings and 'hot spot' research which suggest
that individuals react to a given situation rather than to
regional or community crime patterns.
Riger, S., & Lavrakas, P. (1981). Community ties: Patterns of
attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 55-66.
Riger, S., LeBailly, R. K., & Gordon, M. T. (1981). Community ties
and urbanites fear of crime: An ecological investigation. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 653-665.
Riley, D. (1987). Time and crime: The link between teenager
lifestyle and delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3,
339-354.
Rohe, W., & Burby, R. (1988). Fear of crime in the public housing.
Environment and Behavior, 20, 700-720.
Rohe, W., & Burby, R. (1989). Deconcentration of public housing:
Effects on residents' satisfaction with living environment and
their fear of crime. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 24, 700-720.
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revisited: Linking the theory of routine activities to the
empiricism of 'hot spots'. Criminology, 29, 725-753.
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Rosenbaum, D. P. (1987). The theory and research behind
neighborhood watch: Is it a sound fear of crime reduction
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Rosenbaum, D. P., Lewis, D., & Grant, J. (1986).
Neighborhood-based crime prevention