Greenstructure and Urban Planning

Sustainable Urban Environmental Planning - Community Plans

by Anne Beer

Community Environmental Plans - interpreting the data to develop an approach to local planning

Using the data provided by undertaking the Environmental Inventory, described in the previous section , it is possible for a community to develop its own agreed statement of long- term intentions for the local environment . Once this has been done, it is possible to progress to translating these ideas into local neighbourhood 'actions' on the ground or in the home, as described in the next section.

Every Community Environmental Plan will be different, reflecting differing social, economic and environmental circumstances. Here, the scope of such a plan is described in relation to a case study of a small existing industrial settlement in northern latitudes. You will need to modify the scope to suit your own 'place'.

Content of a Community Environmental Plan

The plan should:

identify the local environmental problems which need to be solved if a more sustainable local approach to water, waste, energy, biodiversity and landuse and transport issues is to be developed by the community and develop locally applicable strategies for coping with these problems
set out agreed policies which can be applied to solve these problems particularly in relation to land use, land management practices and behaviour patterns
identify in general terms the priorities for these changes and who might be responsible for implementing the changes.

Note that as this book is concerned with site planning issues, this chapter concentrates on changes to the physical and natural environment which result from applying sustainable practices to specific sites, their occupiers and users. It does not attempt to deal with the whole range of social, economic and cultural issues which also need to be addressed by any community trying to become more sustainable in the way it operates.

Identifying local problems in relation to environmental sustainability

For a thorough consideration of the issues relating to environmental sustainability in urban areas the reader should refer to the book Ecopolis (Tjallingii, 1995) and to the Ringkøping Study (SBI, 1999).

a. Sustainable local water management

Why is local water management important for a community environmental plan?

Daily life is dependent on a reliable source of water, yet the way we live within urban areas is the direct and indirect cause of much of the pollution which damages water supplies. If the adverse impacts on water quality and availability of urban areas are to be limited, then it is essential to find a means of cleaning contaminated water at or near the source of the pollution. This can be done:

expensively through 'technological solutions' (building state of the art sewage works), or
more cheaply through 'natural solutions' using the natural self cleansing processes: reed beds, weirs for aeration of surface water, infiltration of surface water into the soil and its gradual percolation into the water table, and
by ensuring that less foul water is produced from domestic and industrial as well as agricultural sources through behaviour changes.

In planning to manage water more effectively and sustainably within any urban community there is a need to recognise that how the land is used and how the surface is managed by local people has a direct impact on factors such as water shortage, wastage, pollution and flooding. It is this direct link and the possibility of controlling it through local land management 'actions' which ensures a role for local communities in developing effective approaches to enhancing the local management of surface water flows, ground water infiltration and the upgrading of water quality in local streams, as well as ponds. It is a link which has too often failed to be recognised by the land use planning process. The role of official water providers in relation to the provision of clean drinking water is vital, but there is also a need to recognise that a local community can also influence water quality directly through the adoption of environmentally sustainable actions by its citizens.

The importance of water courses to local environmental sustainability

In developing a Community Environmental Plan it is important to understand how the local surface and ground water systems work. There is a need to recognise that water courses:

are valuable habitats for a wide range of species and that the deterioration of water courses has endangered many native species

are a major and often untapped recreational resource; improvements can boost the local economy by attracting outsiders as well as providing recreational opportunities for the local community.

Groundwater recharge is also an important consideratiion, as in urban areas up to 85% of total precipitation can be diverted away from groundwater replenishment through excessive run-off. It is important to remember that ground water:

is significantly less in urban areas, when compared with adjacent non-urban areas, because rainwater flows swiftly across hard surfaces directly into the drainage system

tends to flash flood into streams in built-up areas instead of slowly infiltrating into the ground as it does over open, unsealed surfaces. This accelerated run off increases the possibility of flooding, soil erosion and sedimentation of streams, accelerating the rate of loss of biodiversity and severely inhibiting the natural self cleansing mechanisms of water bodies.

The main water problems which can be directly tackled through community environmental planning

The community can make an impact through its own actions on:

flooding - where this is due to the local topography and the local presence of extensive impermeable surfaces

pollution of the streams - where this due to the destruction of biota and the impeding of the natural processes of water purification caused by regular flash flooding

the lack of locations where the natural filtration and purification mechanisms of plants and other aquatic organisms can take place - water quality deteriorates even further when poor land and landscape management has led to the eradication of natural floodland and associated habitats and species

the lack of opportunity to use water for recreation - where this has been due to neglecting the opportunities for fishing, water sports, bathing, walking and bird watching which naturally occur with the presence of clean surface water

the excessive use of tap water for non-drinking purposes - where this is due to a lack of a water collection system for roof water and reusable 'grey' water.

Physical characteristics of a district to be considered when developing an effective water management strategy

Topography - slope analysis

Catchment basin - area of land from which a stream derives its water supply

Local climate - particularly rainfall patterns,

Geology and soils.

The reader is referred to Chapter Three of Environmental Planning for Site Development, Anne R.Beer and Catherine Higgins, 2000 for guidance on data interpretation for information gathered at the Environmental Inventory stage. Understanding the interaction between surface cover (sealed surfaces, such as roads, of areas of land covered by buildings), soil type (natural porosity) and angle of slope is important for local water management. As would be anticipated, run-off is generally greater on the steeper slopes and when these coincide with the less permeable the problem is accentuated. Wherever the water flows faster over the surface there is less time available for the water to percolate into the soil; a waterlogged surface too tends to further accelerate the flow. Surface flow in these circumstances enters the water courses very rapidly, increasing the likelihood of localised damage to biota, disturbance of silts and erosion through flash flooding, all of which decrease the waters self cleansing capabilities and so accentuate pollution problems downstream.

For these reasons a strategy aiming to develop sustainable local water management schemes can be an important part of a Community Environmental Plan.

b. Sustainable energy management and local land use patterns

It is often difficult to get data on energy consumption at the very local level, but given that our use of energy is one of the major causes of pollution, it is safe to assume that anything that can be done to reduce consumption is an advantage for any community. Generating power for local use from wind, biomass, waste products, water and solar energy all need to be examined as part of developing a community strategy.

At community level local wind farms are becoming an increasingly viable option for alternative energy sources, particularly in countries like Denmark and the UK which tend to be very windy. However, the geography of the land does restrict the usage of wind energy, as a wind speed threshold of greater than 5 metres per second is needed for efficient energy generation. This means that the location of wind farms must be on high or open terrain exposed to the winds.

Small scale local combined heat and power stations using biomass or waste products are another increasingly popular solution to local energy production, as is the use of units generating power from a variety of types of solar panels.

However, particularly in relation to existing settlements, there are other simple ways in which we can help to reduce energy consumption by changing the way we use and manage the land and lay out the buildings on the land - it is these factors which are most relevant to the development of local level 'actions'. They include using trees:

to reduce the speed of the wind when it hits a building, so reducing heat loss in winter, and
in hot places for shading so reducing the need for air conditioning in hot periods.

For these reasons a strategy aiming to increase tree cover within the area covered by a Community Environmental Plan can be an important part of implementing a sustainable energy management strategy.

c. Sustainable waste management and local land use

The community needs to consider the development of locally appropriate means of reducing the total amount of household waste, for instance, through encouraging the voluntary implementation of home composting of the biodegradable component of household waste. In Ringkøping, Denmark (see http//:www.sbi.dk) such a scheme was initiated in the mid 1990s, resulting in an active participation of about 60% of family houses. The success of such schemes, where the compost is recycled through fertilising the garden soil has been shown to need a continuous follow up in the form of information flow from the local authority to private households.

Other types of urban biodegradable waste can be recycled in local parks and other spaces owned by the local authority. As there is profit in waste, a local community can even consider engaging a private company to take care of composting the garden and park waste at a central plant. An improved temperature development during the composting process, which is possible in bigger composting plants, enhances the quality and, therefore, the value of the product. A local business might even be developed based on the sale of compost.

In areas of poor, sandy soil biological waste treatment and use of the compost derived from it can be very important, as it adds to the capacity of the soils to grow better harvests, whether of food, flowers or trees.

A strategy which aims at comprehensive and sustainable recycling of local organic resources needs to be set out in the Community Environmental Plan. It should deal with in-house composting of biodegradable domestic waste and that from any municipal institutions, as well as the composting of waste from greenspaces and any local production processes.

d. Sustainable biodiversity in urban areas

Biodiversity assessment for Community Environmental Plans

Based on the surveys of vegetation and the local natural environmental characteristics undertaken for the Environmental Inventory, described earlier in this chapter, assessments can be made of the relative value of the different parts of the study area in relation to biodiversity, with the help of local experts. Two very useful maps can be drawn of direct help in developing an environmental plan for a local area, showing:

the present biodiversity levels across the study area
the potential inherent within the area for enhancing those levels of biodiversity through intervention both in land use and the way in which the land is managed.

Mapping the present variations in biodiversity across the study area and assessing the potential to enhance biodiversity across the study area

Using expert opinion (or a version of the simplified system outlined in the biodiversity section earlier in this chapter) maps can be produced which indicate, for instance, the relative biodiversity of open spaces, garden areas, or the surrounding agricultural landscape. Such maps help to identify where there is a lack of plants and wildlife and so where the local community might target its efforts if it is to enhance the local levels of biodiversity. This can be done, for instance, through changes in land management practices or by creating new areas of permanent native vegetation. At this stage it is important to note any areas designated under local planning regulations as under 'nature conservation protection' - these are the areas already under legal protection which cannot be changed without special permission.

Using the relative biodiversity map as a starting point, it is useful to produce a map indicating where intervention would be most beneficial, that is the areas where biodiversity is low at present, but where sufficient unsealed surface exists to enable an increase in quantity and range of vegetation and habitats. Such a map will help decisions at neighbourhood level about where and what to plant in public greenspaces as well as domestic gardens.

Using the information provided by these maps, as well as that obtained from the other surveys dealing with the physical and natural environment of the study area and the way the land is utilised and managed, a strategy to guide the future land use planning and land management practices in relation to the need to enhance biodiversity within study area can be developed. As a starting point it is important to consider any government and local government guidance on the need to protect and enhance biodiversity in the area.

e Sustainable built-up areas and transport

In order to develop a workable and achievable Community Environmental Plan it is important that the local community has a full understanding of the underlying social and economic factors influencing its functioning as well as how the present urban structure was built up over time. For such a plan to be effective in bringing about change towards more sustainable use of land, it is in particular important for local people to be aware of the link between social, economic and historical factors and the present state of their environment as identified by undertaking the Environmental Inventory.

The local people and the urban structure

Using the data on the community, assembled while undertaking the Environmental Inventory, it is useful to address the following questions:

What was the historical pattern of development; how has the settlement grown and been sustained; what trends can be identified?

How has the population changed socially and in relation to economic activity in recent decades? Who are the people living in the area now: age/sex distribution, education and skills, employment, health and social circumstances.

What are the aspirations of the local people in terms of quality of life? Are any changes required to the local environment if these aspirations are to be met?

It is useful to map variations across the whole area of the community with the intention of identifying any areas where the local people are particularly socially disadvantaged in relation to those factors which impinge on quality of life.

Land use and landscape

The land use map developed for the Environmental Inventory will indicate the major land uses (housing, industry, community facilities, derelict land, open spaces and town centre) and major transport routes. The inventory will also show the variations in the local scenery and in the factors influencing the visual qualities of the study area and its surroundings, and identify the landscape structure zones. From an examination of such data it is possible to identify specific areas in need of 'environmental actions' to regenerate the visual environment and to prioritise such actions.

Information on the local greenspace structure (which is always partly an accident of nature and partly planned; part public and part private) will also be available from the inventory and will be of particular importance in developing those aspects of a Community Environmental Plan which impinge on developing policies for sustainable water management, waste disposal, leisure, biodiversity and expansion of the settlement. With the intense pressures to expand urban areas experienced in may parts of the world it becomes an important part of any Plan to consider how to deal with local development pressures. If it is to avoid feeling pressurised by developers, a community needs to be proactive in identifying environmentally friendly possibilities:

to increase the number and range of dwellings
to enlarge the areas available for economic, commercial or community activity.

Housing and density

Information on the type (detached, semi-detached, apartments etc.), ownership (privately owned, rented or social housing), age and condition of the buildings and the density of development will be available from the Environmental Inventory. In developing a Community Environmental Plan it is important to develop strategies which still allow for the differences between the various existing housing areas.

The amount of land left open and unsealed after buildings and roads are deducted is the most important factor enabling a community to identify opportunities for sustainable 'actions', in particular, to identify those very local land management changes which can do much to enhance the local quality of life. This is particularly so in areas where the house types are suburban in character.

It is important to be aware of the differences across any community and to identify where the relatively disadvantaged live, as these are the areas which need targeting first with any available public funds and for which external funding is the most likely to be available.

Sustainable transport

A new approach to transport is needed everywhere, one which is friendly to the environment - a sustainable approach. .Governments are working to encourage less pollution from cars, but much can also be done at the local community level. Locally the aim should be to gain relief from problems such as environmental nuisance, adverse impacts on health and traffic congestion, and to reorganise areas at present disadvantaged by local traffic movements so that the local quality of life is improved.

Car dependency is increasing rapidly everywhere. To restrict the use of cars is always particularly difficult in the type of medium to low density suburban area which it is envisaged here as benefiting from a Community Environmental Plan. In such areas the economies of running public transport break down, but due to the greater need to travel to shops, community facilities and recreation and in some places due to the physical problems of walking up and down the hills, the need for access to public transport is actually greater. This is an issue which needs to be addressed nationally and by local authorities and bus companies. In developing a Community Environmental Plan we only consider a small part of the transportation problem here.

There is a need to develop local strategies for:

an integrated system of footpaths and cycleways which give direct routes to all locally accessible facilities - schools, community building, shops and recreational spaces. In some cases it may be necessary to demolish existing buildings to make such a system work - this should not be seen, as it has been in the past, as an inhibitor to developing a properly connected efficient footpath system. People walking from A to B need a direct route or else they will use transport. In addition to the direct routes between housing areas and local facilities, there is a need for a more meandering system of paths using the local greenspace network for recreational walking and cycling.

proper facilities for parking bicycles in schools and at other community meeting points safely

traffic calming schemes which emphasise the priority of the pedestrian and force cars to move at walking pace, as in the Dutch Woonerf system

local 'telework centres' where people from the local community can spend time carrying out tasks for distant employers by booking use of a work space and so avoid the journey to work

local shopping schemes where goods are delivered after a phone or computer call, rather than collected from the shops

local transport schemes.

For these reasons clear strategies are needed which aim to upgrade the sustainability of the existing built-up areas, as well as guide the sustainability of new development, particularly in relation to the local management of water, waste, energy, biodiversity and transport.

f. Sustainable greenspaces

In too many urban areas greenspace tends to be almost bare of vegetation and characterless: designated at the time of original development as open space, it was often only supplied to meet the prevailing land use planning legislation. Not surprisingly such spaces are seen by outsiders as useless and much greenspace is constantly subject to development pressures as a result. Their state is a sign of a lack of thought about the importance of greenspace to the general quality of life in urban areas of such land (see Chapter Seven). There has been a lack of public resources to care for them.

A strategy which aims to regenerate such spaces, with the aim of realising their full potential for enhancing local biodiversity, as well as enhancing the quality of local people's lives, can give local community groups a focal point - so playing a major part in enhancing the quality of life. Good quality local greenspace enhances the quality of life and the sustainability of the local land uses in many ways, for instance, through increasing the range of local recreational opportunity, which in turn reduces the need for car usage in leisure time. Good quality greenspace also enhances the visual environment, creates educational opportunities for children, allows the development of efficient local water management schemes and grows biomass for use locally).

As the Community Environmental Plan is developed the community needs to consider what problems are associated with access and the internal circulation of existing greenspaces, in addition to identifying the qualities it would like its greenspaces to have and the functions it would like them to fulfil. For instance, where there is a lack of such space what part could be played by using the river/stream corridors and other existing 'natural areas' in developing a more coherent greenspace structure? Greenspaces offering children's play opportunities are often deficient in urban areas and this too needs consideration. The community has an important role to play in identifying the need for different types of play and encouraging the regeneration of any existing unimaginative and poorly planned play spaces, as well as creating new opportunities.

There is always the possibility that a community could, through its own efforts, work with a local authority and appropriate experts to redesign its local greenspaces so that they are more supportive of the whole range of recreational activities in which all age groups would like to participate. Passive recreation, the appreciation of just being in the 'outdoors' in beautiful natural surroundings, should not be forgotten in striving to increase the range of activities supported by local greenspaces.

Rethinking openspace, who designs it and who maintains it and how this could be financed, is something that could encourage the direct involvement of local groups. There is even the possibility, if local financial arrangements could be rethought, of developing schemes whereby local people could be paid to be involved in caretaking and maintaining their local greenspaces. In such circumstances the local authority's role could become that of providing the land and the professional design and management skills, while the local people evolve their own sustainable approach to local greenspace.

Sustainable Communities - local action

Introduction

Background

Abiotic data

Biotic data

Social, cultural and economic

A Community Environmental Plan

Local policies

Neighbourhood "actions"

Landscape Structure Zones

References

Maps - Case Study

Return to top of page

click here to RETURN TO COST C11 WEBSITE