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Working Group 1A - Comparison of Case Studies |
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Other papers relating to people/ ecology interface |
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Case Study Vienna -
Draft 1 The Greenstructure of
Vienna © Eva Erhart, 2002,
Ludwig Boltzmann-Institute for Biological Agriculture and
Applied Ecology, Vienna Introduction The City of Vienna has
1,615,438 inhabitants and it covers a surface area of 415
km2 within its administrative boundaries. The average gross
domestic product (GDP) per capita of Vienna`s inhabitants
amounts to 31,800 ¤; the rate of unemployment is 5.3 %.
Vienna has 3,268,289 tourist arrivals per year. Greenspace covers nearly
half of the surface area of Vienna, including a broad range
of greenstructures, from small neighborhood parks, green
spaces along streets and in courtyards, trees and avenues to
large historic parks, nature conservation areas and the
urban forests at the fringe of the city. Table 1 shows the
land use in Vienna, Fig. 1 the distribution of the
greenspace in the city. Fig. 1: Greenspace in
Vienna (according to the Realnutzungskartierung 1997;
Source: IFF / Social Ecology, MA41, MA21, MA18) 1. How have natural and
cultural features influenced the development of
greenstructure in the urban environment? The landscape of Vienna
is exceptionally diverse. Vienna is situated at the
intersection of different landscape types and climatic
regions. From the Wienerwald in the west a series of
terraces descends like steps to the Danube, where the center
of the city is situated. In the South, Vienna is bounded by
the hills of the Wienerberg and the Laaer Berg, and in the
North by the Bisamberg. In the Northeast, Vienna extends
into the plain of the Marchfeld. Climatically, Vienna is
situated in the transition zone between the central
european, the pannonic and the alpine climate.
Correspondingly, the natural vegetation in Vienna would
consist of mixed deciduous forest (mainly beech, maple, oak
and hornbeam) in the western part of the city and of
pannonic vegetation with dry grassland and oak forests in
the east. Vienna originates in
ancient Roman times. In the first century AD the Romans set
up a military camp, called Vindobona, which formed part of
the large number of similar facilities along the Limes
frontier. Around 1150 the Austrian margraves from the
Babenberg dynasty transferred their residence to Vienna. In
this time Vienna unfolded into a veritable town. By 1500 the
city had some 20,000 inhabitants. The medieval town was
enclosed by town walls and by the glacis and surrounded by
fields, villages, vineyards and woods. The glacis was a
spacious meadow area, intended for military defense. A town
map of 1547 shows 150 gardens in the inner city, which all
have disappeared in the following centuries. Around 1569,
the Neugebäude castle and gardens were built in
Renaissance style south of the city. They survived the
Turkish sieges, after which an immense building activity
started in the villages around Vienna. By 1754 the number of
inhabitants had increased to 175,000. Many aristocratic
families built palais with baroque gardens outside the
glacis. One of the largest, which is still preserved in
baroque style today, is the Belvedere in the 3rd district.
Extensive tree-lined avenues connected the emperor`s castles
with the suburbs and the hunting areas. The
Schönbrunner Allee, the Hofjagdzeile and the Prater
Hauptallee still exist today in the densely built-up
city. The parts of the city
originating from the second half of the 19th century are
laid out in a dense rectangular pattern of blocks of
buildings, streets and places. The few green structures
there are courtyards and small parks. Somewhat larger green
spaces were laid out in the area of the former second
fortification ring, which was transformed into the
Gürtel-road. Population figures
continued to rise rapidly. In 1880, the city had 726,000
inhabitants, by 1890 their number had grown to 1,365,000 as
a result of the incorporation of suburbs. The rapid
expansion of the city also endangered the Wienerwald, which
had been administered by the court until then. Josef
Schöffel, the mayor of Mödling, started a campaign
to save the Wienerwald. In 1905 the Wienerwald was made to a
protected green zone by decree of the Vienna City Council.
By 1910 the city reached the highest population figures in
its history with 2,031,000 through the massive immigration
into the capital of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. After
WWI, the pressure of the huge and poor population led to a
boom in allotment gardens in many parts of the city. Between
WWI and WWII, public parks were created in the outlying
districts. In 1954, the boundaries of the city were changed
for the last time. In the 1950s to 1970s, the large forest
areas of the Lobau, the Bisamberg and the Lainzer Tiergarten
were made accessible for the Viennese people. The aim of the
city politics was to keep a belt of green space around the
built-up area of Vienna. Large parks were created in the
22nd and 23rd district. In the 1970s, the hydraulic
regulation of the Danube was reformed thoroughly. In the
place of the former flood-plain zone, a wide strip of
riverfront on the northern bank of the Danube, which was
flooded periodically when the Danube had high-water, a
by-pass channel for the Danube was excavated, which now
takes up the masses of excess water when the Danube is in
flood , and a long-stretched man-made island, the Danube
Island created between Danube and the by-pass channel. The
Danube Island opened an entirely new recreation area for the
urban population. The Lobau, a large
(2,900 ha) natural riverside forest on the south-eastern
bank of the Danube, was made a nature reserve in 1978. In
1996, it was declared a national park together with the
adjacent riverside forests in Lower Austria, which stretch
along the Danube to the Slovakian border (total: 9,300
ha). Sources: Auböck and
Ruland, 1994; Opll (www.wien.gv.at/history) Today, green spaces
cover 49 % of the city surface in Vienna, compared to 33 %
of built-up area and 14 % traffic area (Table 1). More than
one third of the green space is covered by forests, another
third is farmland (arable land, horticultural land and
vineyards) and 11 % are meadows (mainly on the Danube Island
and in the Wienerwald). These meadows are not in intensive
agricultural use, but rather are recreation areas. Only 5 %
of the green space are parks (Table 2). Table 2: Categories of
green space in Vienna (MA 41, Realnutzungskartierung 1997;
Bearb.: MA 21, MA 18) The greatest part of the
agricultural area is intensively used arable land on the
urban fringe. In the past decades the arable land was
cleared from many of the hedges, shrubs and trees on the
field margins, so that it is a rather monotonous landscape,
which is unsatisfactory both regarding agroecology and
nature conservation and regarding recreational use (Maurer
et al., 2000). Around 20 % of the
horticultural area is built up with greenhouses, so that
many horticultural holdings more and more resemble business
areas and no longer are open, green spaces. Viticulture has a very
long tradition in Vienna, which goes back to the ancient
Romans. No other city in the world has larger vineyards
within its boundaries than Vienna. The vineyards and
wine-growers` villages on the southern slopes of the hills
around Vienna were incorporated into the growing city.
Viticulture is an important economic factor for Vienna. The
„Heurigen", small, privately run wine taverns, are a
typical Viennese institution. The cultural landscapes of the
vineyards and the former wine growers` villages are popular
recreation areas. Agricultural land is the
main resource of space for the growth of the city. Since the
1950s, agriculture has lost more than a quarter of its area
in favour of other land uses. Since 1985, the area of
agricultural land has decreased for 15 %. Two thirds of the
former agricultural area were changed into forests and
parks, one third was built up. On the other hand, there
is the desire to keep and preserve some agricultural areas
within the city borders. How this goal can be achieved, as
well as the role of agriculture in Vienna on the whole, is
subject of discussion at present. 2. What does this
greenstructure mean for biodiversity, environmental services
and management of flows? Biodiversity: The flora of the city of
Vienna, comprising 2187 wild plant species and subspecies
altogether, can be considered very rich in species. The
species richness is mainly due to the location of Vienna
within the border region of several big floral regions
(Central European, Alpic, Pontic, Pannonian and
Submediterranean) comprising substantial proportions of
close-to-wilderness areas (natural forests, wetlands along
the Danube, formerly extensively used steppe pastures) as
well as arable land, meadows and artificial forests. In
addition to that, man-made sites typical for large cities,
like ruderal vegetation, waste places, settlement areas,
traffic areas (railways, docks, streets, channels) and
industrial fallow areas (including trade and business
places) play an important role. Out of a total of 2187
species, 1596 (73 %) belong to Vienna`s indigenous flora,
591 (27 %) species, are ± naturalized immigrants
introduced on purpose or unintentional. 742 species of the
Viennese flora (i. e. 34 % of the total) were classified as
being endangered (Red List; neophytes not considered). A
first coordination of the endangered species to their
typical habitats shows that the majority of the more
severely endangered species are not part of the natural
ecosystems (like forests, thus maintaining some equilibrium
by self-regulation), but live in habitats extensively
altered and influenced by man (Müllner et
al.). 58 species of mammals
are living currently in Vienna. Most of them (40 species)
are protected by the nature conservation law. Species which
inhabit natural woods, river banks, dry grassland or other
well-structured landscapes are endangered, because these
types of biotopes are diminishing and the remaining biotopes
are often isolated. A second reason for the endangering of
many species is the use of pesticides (Sieber and Ulbel,
1998). Two thirds of the 134
species of butterflies living in Vienna are found on the Red
List. Most of them, and also most of the endangered
butterfly species, are living in dry grassland. Other
important biotopes for butterflies in Vienna are woods,
rough pastures and moist meadows. Dry grassland and rough
pastures are also the most important biotopes for the
grasshoppers, which comprise 72 species in Vienna
(Höttinger, 1998; Berg et al., 1998). Management of
flows: About one quarter of the
green area in Vienna is in agricultural use. Approx. 850 ha
of the agricultural area belong to Vienna`s municipal
estates, the remnants of the former imperial estates. In
order to realize closed ecological cycles of nutrient flows
in at least a part of waste management, a special model for
biowaste treatment and use was developed. Since 1988, the
organic fraction of household waste is collected separately
in Vienna, and transformed in an open windrow composting
process under permanent quality control into a compost,
which conforms to high standards (quality class A and A+
according to the Austrian compost regulation). The largest
part of the compost is used in agriculture on the municipal
agricultural estates. This made it possible that a part of
the estates could change over to organic farming
(www.bestpractices.org). 3. How are the
ecological and environmental functions of greenstructure
considered in land use / landscape planning? How are the
functions being managed to meet ecological and environmental
goals? The formal planning
instruments in Vienna are the building regulations and the
comprehensive community development plan and the legally
binding land-use plan. The two plans are amalgamated into
one document. Vienna does not have a regional planning law,
so the regulations for city planning are to be found in the
building regulations. The building regulations
mention some goals for greenspace planning, such as to make
provisions for recreational green areas and water bodies,
particularly in the green belt, and conservation of green
areas such as the Prater, the Lobau and the Alte Donau, and
the protection of the Wienerwald. Some details regarding
greenspace are also laid down in the building regulations,
such as on which share of a construction site vegetation is
to be established and trees are to be planted. The community
development plan and the land-use plan provide detailed
guidance for the future pattern of land use in an area by
ascribing the area to a certain zone. There are four kinds
of zones: green space, building areas, traffic areas and
special areas. The green space comprises rural areas,
recreational areas, cemeteries and protected
areas. Vienna`s nature
conservation law provides several categories with varying
degrees of protection: National parks, wilderness areas,
nature reserves, protected landscapes, protected landscape
sectors, area for ecological development and natural
monument. Vienna`s tree
preservation law protects trees with a trunk circumference
of more than 40 cm, with the exception of trees in forests,
tree nurseries, allotment gardens, in agricultural areas and
fruit trees. Felling of protected trees requires the
permission of the authorities. Trees in forests are subject
to the forestry law. Informal planning
instruments, which are not established in law, are the Urban
Development Plan 94 (Stadtentwicklungsplan 94, STEP 94), the
plan Greenbelt Vienna 1995 and the Strategy Plan for
Vienna. The Urban Development
Plan 94 is based on a resolution of the City Council. It
provides a guideline framework for the desired land
development. The STEP 94 defines 11 growth axes, along which
the city expansion should take place. Between the growth
axes, large green areas, which are connected into a web of
greenstructures, should be preserved. In order to implement
the ideas of the STEP 94, a number of more detailed plans
for the greenstructures were elaborated. The plan Greenbelt
Vienna 1995 shows the network of green areas, which should
form a belt around the built-up area of the city. These
green areas comprise the Wienerwald, the vineyards of the
Bisamberg, the old railway station Breitenlee and parts of
the former airport Aspern, the Lobau National park, the
Prater, the main cemetery, the agricultural areas in the
south of Vienna and the Wienerberg. These green areas are
linked by green corridors and by areas in agricultural use.
The plan does not comprise small green structures such as
private gardens or allotment gardens. Fig. 6: Greenbelt Vienna
1995 (greenbelt in black). The following measures
are planned to be taken in order to protect the green areas
mentioned in the plan Greenbelt Vienna 1995. Ascribing green
areas to „protected zones in the greenbelt", laid down
in the community development plan / land-use plan is the
best possible protection. In such a zone, no building
activities are allowed. At present, only a part of the
designated greenbelt is ascribed to „protected zones in
the greenbelt". Large areas are ascribed to „rural
areas", in which certain building activities are allowed.
There is a high pressure to change the ascribed pattern of
land use in the community development plan / land use plan
of some of these areas into building areas or into allotment
gardens. Green areas may also be protected following the
nature conservation law. A third possibility to protect the
areas of the greenbelt is to develop them into woods or
parks. As trees are protected by the tree preservation law,
such areas become protected greenspaces. This measure is
used extensively. Furthermore, it was intended that the City
Council should protect some areas by purchasing them, which
has been realized in a few cases. The Strategy Plan for
Vienna (1999) also calls for the realization of the
Greenbelt 95. It names the measures to be taken &endash;
protection in the community development plan / land use
plan, protection by nature conservation law, protection by
afforestation and purchase by the City &endash; and in
addition to that it names the persons responsible for the
implementation. It also calls for the provision of public
and additional private funding for purchasing and developing
of greenstructures. The maintenance of the cultivated
landscape by farmers is mentioned as an essential
input. 4. What is presently
recorded about ecology in the case study area, by whom, and
how? The Municipal Department
for Nature Conservation (MA 22), has commissioned numerous
studies on environmental and ecological aspects of the city.
Biotope mapping studies in the built-up areas were conducted
in the late 1980s (Punz, 1990). Habitat surveys covered
vegetation (Müllner et al., 1998, Grass, 1995) and
important groups of fauna, such as mammals (Sieber and
Ulbel, 1998), birds (Donnerbaum and Wichmann, 2001),
reptiles (Schedl and Klepsch, 1999a), lizards (Schedl and
Klepsch, 1999b), beetles (Zabransky, 1999), butterflies
(Höttinger, 1998) and grasshoppers (Berg et al., 1998).
A nature conservation strategy for Vienna (Kutzenberger,
1994a) and concepts for the conservation of species and
their habitats (Kutzenberger, 1994b) were drawn
up. Several studies dealt
with specific problems, such as the impact of streets on the
fauna (Glitzner, 1998) and the protection of birds in the
vicinity of wind energy plants (Sachslehner and Kollar,
1997). The air quality in
Vienna is subject to continuous monitoring by the MA 22 at
18 measuring sites
(http://www.wien.gv.at/ma22/luftgue.html). The heavy metal
content of soils in parks and along traffic routes is also
monitored by the MA 22 laboratory every second
year. In the 1990s, a biotope
monitoring study was conducted using aerial infrared
photography. This technique is economical and makes it
possible to repeat the monitoring after few years (1991
&endash; 1997 &endash; 2000). Infrared photos of the total
city area were analyzed in detail for the greenstructures
and the results were included via GIS in the digital city
map. The infrared photos were also used to assess the
percentage of damaged trees in Vienna (Kellner et al.,
1999). In a study titled
„Ecological-functional types of structures", the total
area of the city was differentiated according to
ecological-functional criteria and was allocated to one of
eight ecological-functional types: densely built-up
housing/mixed areas with low ecological/recreational
potential, densely built-up housing/mixed areas with an
ecological/recreational potential that can be expanded,
areas with family houses, parks and large recreational
areas, uncultivated land, agricultural areas, areas covered
by (mainly) woods, other areas. These ecological-functional
structure types were the basis for a first proposal for
differential conservation and development measures
(Brandenburg et al., 1994). Energy, material (in
particular carbon) and water balances for anthropogenic and
natural flows were calculated by Punz et al. (1996),
Dörflinger et al. (1996), Maier et al. (1997) and
Brunner et al. (1996). For Vienna`s agriculture, nutrient
balances were calculated for nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (Erhart et al., 2001) and suggestions for
improving the nutrient balances were made (Hartl and Erhart,
2001). The status of
agriculture in Vienna today from the ecological, economical,
social and planning point of view was evaluated and options
for its future development were worked out (Maurer et al.,
2000, 2001). 5. How have ecological
goals been set out to influence the planning, design and
management processes? Is there any evidence that these goals
have effectively influenced the planning processes within
the study area? The Urban Development
Plan 94 (STEP 94) and the plan Greenbelt Vienna 1995 provide
guidelines, how and where to preserve and extend the green
space in Vienna. Since 1995, the areas Bisamberg (275 ha)
and Flugfeld Aspern (35 ha) in the north of Vienna and the
Goldberg (270 ha), a refuge for endangered plant and animal
species in the south of Vienna, have been preserved by
ascribing them to „protected zones in the greenbelt" in
the community development plan / land use plan. Further
areas are being protected by developing them into forests or
parks. In the last 10 years, 60 ha of „young citizens
forest" were planted in the framework of an annual
celebration, in which the 18-year-old citizens are allowed
to plant a tree with their own hands. The pressure for
enlargement of industrial and traffic areas, however, poses
great challenges for the closing of the greenbelt in Vienna,
particularly in the south of the city. A new instrument to take
environmental aspects into account in city planning is the
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). The SEA aims at
identifying, at a strategic level, the environmental
consequences of a proposed policy, plan or programme, in
order to ensure that they are fully included and
appropriately addressed at the earliest stage of
decision-making on par with economic and social
considerations. SEA involves planners, policy-makers,
stakeholders and the wider public in an active,
participatory and educational process. At the moment, a SEA
is conducted for the area in the North East of Vienna, which
is to be developed in the next years
(www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/supernow). The Local Agenda 21 was
started as a platform for sustainable district development
and citizen participation in the fields of ecology, social
affairs and economy in Vienna`s 9th district. In the
framework of the Local Agenda 21 citizens also participate
in the process of developing green spaces in their district
(www.agenda21.or.at). First steps to implement
the nature conservation strategy for Vienna and the
programmes for the conservation of important species and
their habitats are taken on district level. The programme
„Network Nature" was started in the 17th district.
Natural vegetation structures are promoted by reduced care
of greenspaces, planting of plants appropriate to the site,
opening up of previously sealed surfaces; habitats for wild
bees, bats and birds are created
(www.wien.gv.at/ma22/netzwerk.htm). The biotope monitoring
study showed that courtyards make up a significant portion
&endash; approx. 40 % - of inner-city green areas. Most
courtyards are privately owned. The municipal government
encourages residents to create small green oases in
courtyards, which had sealed surfaces before and were used
as parking lots. On average, sixty to seventy courtyard
projects are subsidized per year. In the framework of
„Eco-friendly purchasing Vienna" (ÖkoKauf Wien),
an initiative of the city, which aspires that in all
purchases of the municipal departments of the city
(amounting to a total volume of 4 billion Euro per year)
ecological criteria should be considered, a working group
„building" was set up. This working group is preparing
a set of ecological criteria for materials and services (e.
g. planning) which are purchased or ordered by the City of
Vienna. These sets of ecological criteria for planning will
be used in every tendering later (http://taten.municipia.at;
www.magwien.gv.at.m22). The city`s bicycle path
extension programme aims at creating a tightly-knit system
of bicycle paths, which provides useful routes for every-day
trips, but also good connections to the recreation areas. In
2000, Vienna had 800 km of bicycle paths. Another 173 km,
mainly connecting existing routes, are planned for the next
five years. Bicycle paths and public transport connect the
Danube Island, a new green space which was created in the
1970s, with the city, reducing vehicle traffic to and from
this popular recreation area. First steps towards the
implementation of ecological goals in agriculture were taken
by the municipal estates. Since 1985, fifty km of windbreak
hedges, which reduce wind erosion and provide habitats for
many species, were planted on farmland in the northeast and
the south of Vienna. „Eco-food" is a
programme which aims at increasing the use of
organically-grown foodstuffs to 30 % at the City`s
institutions, such as kindergartens, schools, hospitals and
old people`s homes. This gives Viennese farmers the
opportunity to change over to organic farming with good
sales prospects for their products. Since 2001, private
farmers may contract voluntarily with the Municipal
Department for Nature Conservation for taking farmland out
of cultivation and converting it into nature conservation
areas by appropriate management measures. The contract
grants the farmer a compensation subsidy (Contracted Nature
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MA22. Schedl H., Klepsch R.
(1999b): Bericht über die Artenkartierung und
Grundlagenerhebung zum Wiener Arten- und
Lebensraumschutzprogramm (ALSP) &endash; Smaragdeidechse
(Lacerta viridis). Studie im Auftrag der MA22. Sieber J., Ulbel G.
(1998): Geschützte Säugetierarten (ohne
Fledermäuse) in Wien. Artenportraits. Studie im Auftrag
der MA22. Zabransky P. (1999):
Artenportraits der in Wien streng geschützten
Käferarten. Studie im Auftrag der MA22.
Working
Group 1A -
Comparison of Case Studies Other papers
relating to people/ ecology interface Sheffield to
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